| 1. |
- Hassel, Ivon, et al.
(författare)
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The single cube apparatus for shear testing : Full-field strain data and finite element analysis of wood in transverse shear
- 2009
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Ingår i: Composites Science And Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0266-3538 .- 1879-1050. ; 69:7-8, s. 877-882
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The design and analysis of wood structures require accurate data for shear properties, where transverse shear in particular has been neglected in the past. The single cube apparatus (SCA) was applied to transverse shear of Norway spruce (Picea Abies), due to the importance of this species in wood structures, such as glulam, and also its allegedly low value of GRT . Full-field strain data and FEA were used to analyze the potential of the method. The presence of a large central region of homogeneous and close to pure shear strain was confirmed. The SCA method is therefore a strong candidate for improved shear test procedures in wood and other materials, where porosity (gripping problems), heterogeneity on mm-scale and polar orthotropy (annual ring curvature) may cause particular difficulties. In contrast to many other shear test studies, the accuracy of the present GRT data is supported by documented large and homogeneous specimen stress- and strain-fields in almost pure shear, direct measurements of strain field, and careful stress analysis based on FEA.
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| 2. |
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| 3. |
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| 4. |
- Hassel, Ivon, et al.
(författare)
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Functional gradient effects explain the low transverse shear modulus in spruce : Full-field strain data and a micromechanics model
- 2009
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Ingår i: Composites Science And Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0266-3538 .- 1879-1050. ; 69:14, s. 2491-2496
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An important failure mechanism in glulam beams is cracking caused by out-of-plane transverse loads. It has been demonstrated that the low transverse shear modulus G(RT) in spruce contributes to large transverse strain inhomogeneities due to the annual ring structure in combination with shear coupling effects. In the present study, improved understanding of annual ring effects is achieved by the development of a micromechanical model. It relates the functional density gradient in spruce annual rings to shear modulus GRT. The geometrical basis is a hexagonal cell model, and in shear it is demonstrated to deform primarily by cell wall bending. Full-field strain measurements by digital speckle photography (DSP) show very strong correlation with predicted shear strains at the annual ring scale. Predictions are obtained by implementation of the micromechanics model in a finite element (FE) model developed for the single cube apparatus shear specimen. The low GRT of spruce is due to the strong dependence of GRT on relative density rho/rho(s)(G(RT) proportional to (rho/rho(s))(3)). This is particularly important in spruce. Even though average density is typically quite high, the functional gradient structure includes local densities as low as 200 kg/m(3).
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| 5. |
- Ljungdahl, Jonas, 1979-
(författare)
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Structure and properties of Vasa oak
- 2006
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The Vasa ship is not adequately supported. Measurements of the hull show that the ship deforms and rotate towards the port side. In addition, damages on the hull at support areas have been observed. The damages are due to high compressive loads. At damaged zones the support has been removed and the loads are thus transferred to adjacent support stanchions. In order to design an improved support, knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of the material is needed. In particular, radial modulus, strength and deformation mechanisms are of interest. In the present study, the mechanical behaviour of recent oak and oak from Vasa is studied. Furthermore, effects of PEG content, degradation and moisture on the properties of Vasa oak are investigated. Oak is characterized by a very abrupt change from earlywood to latewood, where the latewood is much denser than earlywood. Also present in oak are large rays in the radial direction of the wood. Small specimens were tested in compression using Digital Speckle Photography (DSP) in order to obtain strain fields of the whole specimen surface. This technique also provided data on failure mechanisms. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) was performed to establish differences in moisture softening. In radial compression, modulus and strength of Vasa oak are reduced by 50% compared with recent oak. A significant change of failure mechanism is observed for Vasa oak. In recent oak, failure in radial compression is by continuous folds of rays in the earlywood followed by continued plastic collapse of the earlywood layer. In Vasa oak rays show a more brittle fracture in each earlywood region. DMTA results indicate no effect on moisture softening of Vasa oak from presence of PEG although more work is needed to confirm this. Moisture adsorption for PEG-extracted Vasa oak is not significantly higher than for recent oak below 60% RH, suggesting that the extent of degradation of Vasa oak is limited. Vasa oak containing PEG is much more hygroscopic than PEG-extracted Vasa oak already at 50%. This difference is increasing with increasing relative humidity.
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| 6. |
- Modén, Carl S., 1979-, et al.
(författare)
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A two-phase annual ring model of transverse anisotropy in softwoods
- 2008
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Ingår i: Composites Science And Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0266-3538 .- 1879-1050. ; 68:14, s. 3020-3028
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Transverse anisotropy in softwoods is an important phenomenon of both scientific and industrial interest. Simple one-phase hexagonal honeycomb cell models for transverse moduli of softwoods are based on cell wall bending as the only deformation mechanism. In the present study, a two-phase annual ring model is developed and includes both cell wall bending and stretching as deformation mechanisms. The proportion of cell wall bending and stretching for different cases is analysed and the importance of stretching is confirmed. A two-phase annual ring model is presented based on fixed densities for earlywood and latewood. Such a model is motivated by the large difference in density between earlywood and latewood layers. Two-phase model predictions show much better agreement with experimental data than predictions from a one-phase model. Radial modulus is dominated by bending at low density and by stretching at high density. For tangential modulus, bending is more important at all densities.
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| 7. |
- Modén, Carl S., 1979-, et al.
(författare)
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Elastic deformation mechanisms of softwoods in radial tension : Cell wall bending or stretching?
- 2008
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Ingår i: Holzforschung. - 0018-3830 .- 1437-434X. ; 62:5, s. 562-568
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Radial softwood modulus ER is typically twice as high as the tangential modulus ET. The reason for this is unclear, although cell geometry is likely to contribute. The established hexagonal honeycomb model for prediction of ER is based on a cell wall bending mechanism only. If cell wall stretching also takes place, the dependence of ER on relative density will be different. If experimental data for ER as a function of relative density show deviations from cell wall bending predictions, this may indicate the presence of cell wall stretching. A SilviScan apparatus is used to measure density distribution. A procedure by means of digital speckle photography is then developed for measurements of local ER within the annual rings of spruce. Comparison is made between experimental data and the two expected density dependencies from cell wall bending and from stretching. The hypothesis of cell wall stretching as a contributing mechanism is supported based on the observed linear dependence of ER over a wide density range.
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| 8. |
- Modén, Carl S., 1979-
(författare)
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Micromechanics of softwoods in the transverse plane : effects on cell and annual ring scales
- 2008
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Transverse mechanical properties of wood are important in many practial applications and an interesting scientific subject. A very low transverse shear modulus has been identified in spruce, which causes large strain concentrations in wood structures. In this thesis, experimental characterization of local density variations as well as local strain fields are carried out using the SilviScan apparatus and digital speckle photography, respectively. This is combined with micromechanical modeling based on hexagonal wood cells in combination with finite element analysis. Problems addressed include the moduli in the transverse plane, including variations at the scale of individual annual rings. The relative importance of cell wall bending and stretching deformation mechanisms is analysed as a function of wood cell geometry, relative density and direction of loading (radial, tangential and shear). Transverse anisotropy is also analyzed, including its dependency of earlywood and latewood characteristics. The wood cell shape angle variation and density effects are sufficient to explain transverse anisotropy in softwoods (no ray effects), and the influence of earlywood/latewood ratio is explained. As a practical test method for shear modulus measurements, an off-axis compression test with full-field strain determination is proposed. The advantage is a simple fixture and large region of representative strain required for a heterogeneous material such as wood. As an alternative, the single cube apparatus (SCA) for shear tests is evaluated. The SCA is used to determine the shear strain distribution within the annual rings. Based on the density distribution of the shear test specimen and a micromechanics model, a finite element model is developed, and predictions are compared with the measured shear strains. The agreement between predicted and measured shear strains at the annual ring scale are remarkably good. It shows that the low GRT of spruce is due to the low earlywood density and the large cell wall bending deformation resulting from shear loading. Furthermore, it illustrates the need for improved understanding of annual ring scale effects. For example, fairly low transverse global loads will lead to lage local shear strains.
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| 9. |
- Modén, Carl S., 1979-
(författare)
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Transverse anisotropy in softwoods : Modelling and experiments
- 2006
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Transverse anisotropy is an important phenomenon of practical and scientific interest. Although the presence of ray tissue explains the high radial modulus in many hardwoods, experimental data in the literature shows that this is not the case for pine. It is possible that anisotropy in softwoods may be explained by the cellular structure and associated deformation mechanisms. An experimental approach was developed by which local radial modulus in spruce was determined at sub-annual ring scale. Digital speckle photography (DSP) was used, and the density distribution was carefully characterized using x-ray densitometry and the SilviScan apparatus. A unique set of data was generated for radial modulus versus a wide range of densities. This was possible since earlywood density shows large density variations in spruce. Qualitative comparison was made between data and predictions from stretching and bending honeycomb models. The hypothesis for presence of cell wall stretching was supported by data. A model for wood was therefore developed where both cell wall bending and stretching are included. The purpose was a model for predictions of softwood moduli over a wide range of densities. The relative importance of the deformation mechanisms was investigated in a parametric study. A two-phase model was developed and radial and tangential moduli were predicted. Comparison with experimental data showed good agreement considering the nature of the model (density is the only input parameter). Agreement is much better than for a regular honeycomb model. According to the model, cell wall bending dominates at both low and high densities during tangential loading. In radial loading, cell wall stretching dominates at higher densities.
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