| 1. |
- Andersson, Gustav, et al.
(author)
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Arteries in the area targeted with successful sclerosing injections for Achilles tendinosis are under distinct neural control
- 2006
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- It has been scientifically demonstrated that there are blood vessels with pathologically high blood flow inside and outside the ventral part of the Achilles tendon in chronic painful tendinosis, but not in pain-free normal Achilles tendons. Injections of local anaesthesia on the outside of the ventral part of the tendon have been found to temporarily abolish the tendon pain, and this has been an inspiration in the development of a new approach in the treatment of tendinosis: Based on ultrasound- (US) and colour Doppler- (CD) guidance, the sclerosing substance polidocanol, for many years used in treatment of varicose veins, was injected targeting the area of high-flow blood vessels just outside the ventral part of the Achilles tendon. The treatment has in pilot studies and a randomized controlled clinical study been shown to cure the pain in about 70-80 % of the patients. Also, follow up examinations, using US and CD, have shown a possible remodeling potential of the tendon. There is some previous information available on the innervation patterns of the human Achilles tendon itself. However, the innervation patterns of the area just outside the ventral part of the tendon, i.e. the area that is targeted by the sclerosing injections (target area), are unknown. This includes a lack of information concerning the nerve-related characteristics of the blood vessels in the area. In this study, therefore, tissue specimens from this target area, obtained during surgical treatment of patients with chronic painful mid-portion Achilles tendinosis, were examined. Histological and immunohistochemical examinations were performed. In the tissue of the target area, in which loose connective tissue and fat cells were frequent constituents, there was a presence of arteries and nerve fascicles. The arteries were of varying dimensions, some being very large. The nerve fascicles were distinguished in sections processed for the pan-neural marker protein gene-product 9.5 (PGP 9.5). Some of the arteries were supplied by an extensive perivascular innervation, as seen via PGP 9.5 staining. As seen via processing for the rate limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), sympathetic innervation was found to be a constituent of this innervation. There was furthermore a marked occurrence of immunoreactions for the α1-adrenoreceptor in arterial walls. Also, there was a presence of immunoreactions for the substance P (SP)-preferred receptor, the neurokinin-1 (NK-1) receptor in arterial walls. This receptor was particularly detected in the endothelial parts. The study shows that the arteries in the target area are accompanied by nerve fascicles and that there is a presence of a perivascular innervation, as well as a presence of adrenergic and NK-1 receptors in arterial walls, in this region. Thus, arteries in this area are under distinct neural control. The nerve-related characteristics of the area targeted in the successful polidicanol injection treatment for Achilles tendinosis are here for the first time shown.
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| 2. |
- Andersson, Gustav, 1983-, et al.
(author)
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Nerve-related characteristics of ventral paratendinous tissue in chronic Achilles tendinosis
- 2007
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In: Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0942-2056 .- 1433-7347. ; 15:10, s. 1272-1279
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Ultrasound and Doppler examination has shown high blood flow-neovascularisation inside and outside the ventral Achilles tendon in chronic painful tendinosis, but not in pain-free normal Achilles tendons. In patients with Achilles tendinosis, injections with the sclerosing substance polidocanol, targeting the areas with increased blood flow, have been demonstrated to give pain relief. A drawback when interpreting these findings is the fact that the pattern of nerve supply in the target area, i.e. the ventral area of the tendon, is so far unknown. In this study, therefore, tissue specimens from this area, obtained during surgical treatment of patients with chronic painful midportion Achilles tendinosis, were examined. In the examined area, containing loose connective tissue, the general finding was a presence of large and small arteries and nerve fascicles. The nerve fascicles were distinguished in sections processed for the pan-neural marker protein gene-product 9.5. The nerve fascicles contain sensory nerve fibers, as shown via staining for the sensory markers substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide, and sympathetic nerve fibers as seen via processing for tyrosine hydroxylase. In addition, there were immunoreactions for the SP-preferred receptor, the neurokinin-1 receptor, in blood vessel walls and nerve fascicles. Some of the blood vessels were supplied by an extensive peri-vascular innervation, sympathetic nerve fibers being a distinct component of this innervation. There was also a marked occurrence of immunoreactions for the alpha1-adrenoreceptor in arterial walls as well as in the nerve fascicles. Altogether, these findings suggest that the area investigated is under marked influence by the nervous system, including sympathetic and sensory components. Thus, sympathetic/sensory influences may be involved in the pain mechanisms from this area. In conclusion, the nerve-related characteristics of the area targeted by the polidicanol injection treatment for Achilles tendinosis, are shown here for the first time.
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| 3. |
- Andersson, Gustav, 1983-, et al.
(author)
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Presence of substance P and the neurokinin-1 receptor in tenocytes of the human Achilles tendon
- 2008
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In: Regulatory Peptides. - : Elsevier BV. - 0167-0115 .- 1873-1686. ; 150:1-3, s. 81-87
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Nerve signal substances, such as the tachykinin substance P (SP), may be involved in the changes that occur in response to tendinopathy (tendinosis). It is previously known that the level of SP innervation within tendon tissue is limited, but results of experimental studies have suggested that SP may have stimulatory, angiogenetic and healing effects in injured tendons. Therefore, it would be of interest to know if there is a local SP-supply in tendon tissue. In the present study, the patterns of expression of SP and its preferred receptor, the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1 R), in normal and tendinosis human Achilles tendons were analyzed by use of both immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. We found that there was expression of SP mRNA in tenocytes, and that tenocytes showed expression of NK-1 R at protein as well as mRNA levels. The observations concerning both SP and NK-1 R were most evident for tenocytes in tendinosis tendons. Our findings suggest that SP is produced in tendinosis tendons, and furthermore that SP has marked effects on the tenocytes via the NK-1 R. It cannot be excluded that the SP effects are of importance concerning the processes of reorganization and healing that occur for tendon tissue in tendinosis. In conclusion, it appears as if SPergic autocrine/paracrine effects occur in tendon tissue during the processes of tendinosis, hitherto unknown effects for human tendons.
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| 4. |
- Bjur, Dennis, 1965-, et al.
(author)
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Immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization observations favor a local catecholamine production in the human Achilles tendon
- 2008
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In: Histology and Histopathology. - 0213-3911 .- 1699-5848. ; 23:2, s. 197-208
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Results of recent studies using immunohistochemistry show evidence of an occurrence of catecholamine production in the cells (tenocytes) of patellar tendons exhibiting tendinopathy (tendinosis). In the present study, antibodies against the catecholamine-synthesizing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and alpha1-adrenoreceptors were applied to sections of specimens of normal and tendinosis Achilles tendons. In situ hybridization using a probe detecting human TH mRNA was also utilized. It was found that sympathetic innervation was very scarce. On the other hand, there were distinct alpha1-adrenoreceptor immunoreactions in blood vessel walls. Interestingly, tenocytes, particularly from tendinosis samples in which the tenocytes showed an abnormal shape (not the typical slender appearance), displayed TH immunoreactions and reactions for TH mRNA. Of further interest was the finding of alpha1-adrenoreceptor immunoreactions in tenocytes. The observations show not only evidence of local catecholamine production at the protein level, which was the case in recent studies for the patellar tendon, but also at the mRNA level. The observations suggest that the tenocytes, especially those with disfigured appearances in tendinosis, can produce catecholamines and also that they can respond to sympathetic transmitters. This is of interest as adrenergic stimulation in other parts of the body is known to induce degenerative/apoptotic and proliferative events, features which are seen in Achilles tendinosis. These observations are completely new findings concerning the human Achilles tendon. It is likely that locally produced catecholamines and the occurrence of autocrine/paracrine effects of these substances are of great relevance during the process of tendinosis.
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| 5. |
- Bjur, Dennis, et al.
(author)
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Observations in favor of a presence of local catecholamine production in the human Achilles tendon - of importance when understanding potential adrenergic effects in Achilles tendinosis.
- 2006
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The mid-portion of the Achilles tendon is a frequently injured and pathologically affected tendon region. Achilles tendinosis presents with chronic tendon pain and impaired function, and most often occurs in the mid-portion of the tendon. Nerve-related effects are likely to be of great significance in the pathogenesis of this condition, and information on innervation patterns is therefore of importance. However, the available information on these aspects is limited for the human Achilles tendon. Via staining for a general nerve marker it has previously been shown that there is a presence of innervation in the loose paratendinous connective tissue and to some extent also within the tendon tissue proper. This innervation has been found to partly conform to sensory innervation. There is no information at all on the patterns of sympathetic innervation in the human Achilles tendon. This is a drawback as it is crucial to know the basis for adrenergic effects on blood vessel regulation in tendinosis and as efferent sympathetic nerve activities may be related to pain symptoms. In the present study, therefore, specimens of tendon tissue from the human Achilles tendon of both tendinosis patients and normal controls were immunohistochemically examined concerning expression of the rate limiting enzyme in catecholamine production, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and of neuropeptide Y (NPY). In normal tendons, TH- and NPY-immunoreactive nerve fibers were occasionally detected in nerve fascicles and in arterial walls in the paratendinous tissue, but were not detected with certainty within the tendon tissue proper. In the specimens of tendinosis affected tendons, TH-and NPY-immunoreactive nerve fibers were almost non-existent. Surprisingly, however, TH-immunoreactions could be seen in the tendon cells (tenocytes) themselves. Sections were also processed for demonstration of α1-, α2a-, and β1- adrenoreceptors. It was hereby seen that there were immunoreactions for adrenergic receptors in the walls of some of the blood vessels, as well as in some of the tenocytes. The observations show that there is a limited sympathetic innervation at the level of the paratendinous tissue and in principle a non-existent such innervation within the tendon tissue proper. On the other hand, as evidenced by findings of TH-immunoreaction in tenocytes, it appears as if there is a local production of catecholamines within the tendon tissue proper itself. Thus, the tenocytes might be an important source of mediators that bind to the adrenergic receptors in the tissue. The observations of adrenergic receptors on tenocytes are furthermore of interest as adrenergic stimulation in other situations can lead to degenerative/apoptotic events and an affection on cell growth. These facts are thus highly interesting when trying to understand how such events can occur in Achilles tendinosis. Similarly, cartilage and menisci have in recent studies been found to harbor cells that express adrenergic receptors, but nevertheless to be very scarcely equipped with nerves. Although there is a very limited sympathetic innervation in the Achilles tendon, our observations show that there is a morphologic correlate for the occurrence of adrenergic actions in the tendon, via effects of locally produced catecholamines.
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| 6. |
- Bjur, Dennis, 1965-, et al.
(author)
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Presence of a non-neuronal cholinergic system and occurrence of up- and down-regulation in expression of M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors : new aspects of importance regarding Achilles tendon tendinosis (tendinopathy)
- 2008
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In: Cell and Tissue Research. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0302-766X .- 1432-0878. ; 331:2, s. 385-400
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Limited information is available concerning the existence of a cholinergic system in the human Achilles tendon. We have studied pain-free normal Achilles tendons and chronically painful Achilles tendinosis tendons with regard to immunohistochemical expression patterns of the M(2) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M(2)R), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). M(2)R immunoreactivity was detected in the walls of blood vessels. As evidenced via parallel staining for CD31 and alpha-smooth muscle actin, most M(2)R immunoreactivity was present in the endothelium. M(2)R immunoreactivity also occured in tenocytes, which regularly immunoreact for vimentin. The degree of M(2)R immunoreactivity was highly variable, tendinosis tendons that exhibit hypercellularity and hypervascularity showing the highest levels of immunostaining. Immunoreaction for ChAT and VAChT was detected in tenocytes in tendinosis specimens, particularly in aberrant cells. In situ hybridization revealed that mRNA for ChAT is present in tenocytes in tendinosis specimens. Our results suggest that autocrine/paracrine effects occur concerning the tenocytes in tendinosis. Up-regulation/down-regulation in the levels of M(2)R immunoreactivity possibly take place in tenocytes and blood vessel cells during the various stages of tendinosis. The presumed local production of acetylcholine (ACh), as evidenced by immunoreactivity for ChAT and VAChT and the detection of ChAT mRNA, appears to evolve in response to tendinosis. These observations are of importance because of the well-known vasoactive, trophic, and pain-modulating effects that ACh is known to have and do unexpectedly establish the presence of a non-neuronal cholinergic system in the Achilles tendon.
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| 7. |
- Danielson, Patrik, et al.
(author)
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Distribution of general (PGP 9.5) and sensory (substance P/CGRP) innervations in the human patellar tendon.
- 2006
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In: Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0942-2056 .- 1433-7347. ; 14:2, s. 125-132
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- There is no information on the pattern of blood vessel innervation, and in principle no information on innervation in general, in the human patellar tendon. In the present study, biopsies from the proximal part of normal and pain-free patellar tendons (11 men, mean age 33 years) were examined. The specimens were evaluated by using antibodies against the general nerve marker protein gene-product 9.5 (PGP 9.5) and the sensory neuropeptides substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and immunohistochemistry. It was observed that the arteries, and to some extent the small vessels, in the loose paratendinous connective tissue were supplied with PGP 9.5- as well as SP- and CGRP-innervations. There was a marked PGP 9.5-like immunoreaction (LI), and to some extent also SP- and CGRP-LI, in the large nerve fascicles in this tissue. In the tendon tissue proper, PGP 9.5-LI was detected in nerve fibers located in the vicinity of some of the blood vessels and in thin nerve fascicles. There was a low degree of SP- and CGRP-innervation in the tendon tissue proper. The observations give a morphologic correlate for the occurrence of nerve-mediated effects in the patellar tendon. Particularly it seems as if there is a marked nerve-mediated regulation of the blood vessels supplying the tendon, at the level where they course in the loose paratendinous connective tissue.
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| 8. |
- Danielson, Patrik, et al.
(author)
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Extensive expression of markers for acetylcholine synthesis and of M2 receptors in tenocytes in therapy-resistant chronic painful patellar tendon tendinosis - a pilot study.
- 2007
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In: Life Sciences. - : Elsevier BV. - 0024-3205 .- 1879-0631. ; 80:24-25, s. 2235-2238
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We have recently obtained evidence favoring the occurrence of an up-regulation of a non-neuronal cholinergic system in chronic painful patellar tendon tendinosis. It seems possible that this up-regulation to a certain degree may be involved in the manifestations of the disease. Today, there is a new, very successful, line of treatment of patellar tendinosis in the form of Doppler guided sclerosing injections. However, a few patients seem resistant to this therapy. Therefore, we have in this pilot study investigated biopsies from the patellar tendon of three such therapy-resistant patients, using immunohistochemistry. In situ hybridization was also applied. Comparisons were made with a material of specimens from both normal (n=16) and tendinosis (n=7) tendons, also previously examined. The study showed that there were extensive immunoreactions for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter, as well as for the M(2) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, in the overwhelming majority of the tenocytes. The immunoreactions were more pronounced than those generally obtained in the tendinosis tissue of the previously studied patients and clearly more pronounced than those of patellar tendon tissue of controls. Also, for the first time, we here present findings of mRNA for ChAT within tenocytes. In conclusion, it appears as if there is an excessive local acetylcholine (ACh) production and an occurrence of marked ACh effects in cases of severe tendinosis. An excessive production of local ACh might be related to pain sensation and the processes that occur in tendinosis development, such as cell proliferation. Thus, the results of this pilot study suggest that non-neuronal ACh is highly involved in the pathology of therapy-resistant patellar tendinosis.
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| 9. |
- Danielson, Patrik, et al.
(author)
-
Extensive expression of markers for acetylcholine synthesis and of M2 receptors in tenocytes in therapy-resistant chronic painful patellar tendon tendonosis - a case study
- 2006
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We have recently, in a study of a group of patients with chronic painful patellar tendon tendinosis (“jumper’s knee”), obtained evidence favoring the occurrence of an upregulation of a non-neuronal cholinergic system in this condition. Today, there is a new line of treatment of patellar tendinosis in the form of doppler guided sclerosing injections (Polidokanol), a treatment that has turned out to be very successful. However, the mechanisms for this therapy remain somewhat unclear. After an average of three treatments, a majority of the patients experience a significant decrease of pain symptoms. Nevertheless, a few patients seem resistant to this therapy, exhibiting no clear decrease in pain sensation. Therefore, we have in this pilot study investigated biopsies from the patellar tendon of one such therapy-resistant patient (male, exhibiting long duration of pain symptoms and showing radiological findings confirming tendinosis), using immunohistochemical methods examining both chemically fixed and unfixed tissue. The results were compared with our previous findings of both normal and tendinosis tendons. Morphologically, there was hypercellularity in the tendon tissue. The immunohistochemical studies showed that there were marked immunoreactions for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) (fixed tissue), as well as for the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (unfixed tissue), in the overwhelming majority of the tenocytes. The levels of immunoreactions were more pronounced than those obtained in the tendinosis tissue of the previously studied patients and clearly more pronounced than those of tendon tissue of controls. In conclusion, our theory is that cases of severe tendinosis, exhibiting therapy-resistance, are related to the occurrence of an excessive local acetylcholine (ACh) production that appears to be even more prominent than in tendinosis in general. This case study emphasizes the need for further investigation regarding the role of non-neuronal ACh in therapy-resistant patellar tendon tendinosis.
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| 10. |
- Danielson, Patrik, et al.
(author)
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Findings favoring production of non-neuronal acetylcholine with possible autocrine/paracrine effects in chronic painful patellar tendon tendinosis.
- 2006
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The innervation pattern of the human patellar tendon is largely unknown. That includes the situation for patients suffering from patellar tendon tendinosis (“jumper’s knee”). Concerning the possible occurrence of a cholinergic system in the human patellar tendon, very little information is available. In the present study, specimens of pain-free normal (n=16) and chronically painful tendinosis (n=7) tendons were examined by different immunohistochemical and histochemical methods. It was found that parts of the tenocytes of the tendinosis tendons displayed immunoreactions for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). Furthermore, immunoreactions for the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor could be detected in both blood vessel cells and tenocytes, especially in tendinosis specimens. Acetylcholinesterase activity was shown for scarce nerve fibers associated with small blood vessels in both the normal and the tendinosis tendons. The observations suggest that, besides the occurrence of a scanty nerve related cholinergic system in the human patellar tendon, there is a local non-neuronal cholinergic system as well, at least in tendinosis tendons. As ChAT and VAChT were detected in tenocytes of these tendons, such tenocytes are likely to produce acetylcholine (ACh) locally, and as both tenocytes and blood vessel cells were found to express the M2 receptor, it is likely that both of these cell types may be influenced by ACh. Thus, in conclusion, there appears to be an upregulation of the cholinergic system, and an occurrence of autocrine/paracrine effects in this system, in the tendinosis patellar tendon. This observation is of importance, not only related to the fact that tendinosis patients exhibit marked pain, but also as stimulation of ACh receptors can lead to cell proliferation, effects on collagen accumulation and angiogenesis, all of which are phenomena that occur in tendinosis.
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