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| 2. |
- Bettencourt, Luís M. A., et al.
(författare)
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Urban scaling and its deviations : Revealing the structure of wealth, innovation and crime across cities
- 2010
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Ingår i: PLOS ONE. - : PLOS. - 1932-6203. ; 5:11
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- With urban population increasing dramatically worldwide, cities are playing an increasingly critical role in human societies and the sustainability of the planet. An obstacle to effective policy is the lack of meaningful urban metrics based on a quantitative understanding of cities. Typically, linear per capita indicators are used to characterize and rank cities. However, these implicitly ignore the fundamental role of nonlinear agglomeration integral to the life history of cities. As such, per capita indicators conflate general nonlinear effects, common to all cities, with local dynamics, specific to each city, failing to provide direct measures of the impact of local events and policy. Agglomeration nonlinearities are explicitly manifested by the superlinear power law scaling of most urban socioeconomic indicators with population size, all with similar exponents (~1.15). As a result larger cities are disproportionally the centers of innovation, wealth and crime, all to approximately the same degree. We use these general urban laws to develop new urban metrics that disentangle dynamics at different scales and provide true measures of local urban performance. New rankings of cities and a novel and simpler perspective on urban systems emerge. We find that local urban dynamics display long-term memory, so cities under or outperforming their size expectation maintain such (dis)advantage for decades. Spatiotemporal correlation analyses reveal a novel functional taxonomy of U.S. metropolitan areas that is generally not organized geographically but based instead on common local economic models, innovation strategies and patterns of crime.
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| 3. |
- Fragkias, Michail, et al.
(författare)
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Does Size Matter? Scaling of CO2 Emissions and U.S. Urban Areas
- 2013
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Ingår i: PLOS ONE. - : PLOS. - 1932-6203. ; 8:6
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Urban areas consume more than 66% of the world's energy and generate more than 70% of global greenhouse gas emissions. With the world's population expected to reach 10 billion by 2100, nearly 90% of whom will live in urban areas, a critical question for planetary sustainability is how the size of cities affects energy use and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Are larger cities more energy and emissions efficient than smaller ones? Do larger cities exhibit gains from economies of scale with regard to emissions? Here we examine the relationship between city size and CO2 emissions for U.S. metropolitan areas using a production accounting allocation of emissions. We find that for the time period of 1999-2008, CO2 emissions scale proportionally with urban population size. Contrary to theoretical expectations, larger cities are not more emissions efficient than smaller ones.
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| 5. |
- Holt, Thomas J., et al.
(författare)
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Examining the social networks of malware writers and hackers
- 2012
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Ingår i: International Journal of Cyber Criminology. - : International Journal of Cyber Criminology. - 0974-2891. ; 6:1, s. 891-903
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A substantive body of research has emerged exploring the social dynamics and subculture of computer hacking. Few, however, have considered the structure of social networks in the hacker community due in part to the lack of visible information about active hackers or malware writers. Our research focuses on the rarely studied subject of underground networks of computer hackers. Thus, this study explores the social networks of a group of Russian hackers using publicly accessible data to understand the nature of social relationships and the ways that they affect information sharing and action. The findings demonstrate that there are a limited number of highly skilled hackers relative to those with some knowledge of computers. Additionally, those hackers with substantive technical skills are centrally located within friendship networks and are the focus of greater attention overall. The impact of these findings for our understanding of computer hacking, and peer networks generally are considered in detail.
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| 6. |
- Lobo, José, et al.
(författare)
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Productivity of invention
- 2012
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Ingår i: Leadership in Science and Technology. - Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage Publications. - 9781412976886 ; , s. 289-297
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 7. |
- Lobo, José, et al.
(författare)
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Scaling of patenting with urban population size : Evidence from global metropolitan areas
- 2013
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Ingår i: Scientometrics. - : Kluwer Academic Publishers. - 0138-9130 .- 1588-2861. ; 96:3, s. 819-828
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Larger agglomerations of individuals create a social environment can sustain a larger repertoire of intellectual capabilities, thereby facilitating the creation and recombination of ideas, and increasing the likelihood that interactions among individuals will occur through which new ideas are generated and shared. Relatedly, cities have long been the privileged setting for invention and innovation. These two phenomena are brought together in the superlinear scaling relationship whereby urban inventive output (measured through patenting) increases more than proportionally with increasing population size. We revisit the relationship between urban population size and patenting using data for a global set of metropolitan areas in the OECD and show, for the first time, that the superlinear scaling between patenting and population size observed for US metropolitan areas holds for urban areas across a variety of urban and economic systems. In fact the scaling relationships established for the US metropolitan system and for the global metropolitan system are remarkably similar.
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| 8. |
- Lobo, Jose, et al.
(författare)
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The Inventive, the Educated and the Creative : How Do They Affect Metropolitan Productivity?
- 2014
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Ingår i: Industry and Innovation. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1366-2716 .- 1469-8390. ; 21:2, s. 155-177
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A longstanding research tradition assumes that endogenous technological development increases regional productivity. It has been assumed that measures of regional patenting activity or human capital are an adequate way to capture the endogenous creation of new ideas that result in productivity improvements. This process has been conceived as occurring in two stages. First, an invention or innovation is generated, and then it is developed and commercialized to create benefits for the individual or firm owning the idea. Typically these steps are combined into a single model of the "invention in/productivity out" variety. Using data on Gross Metropolitan Product per worker and on inventors, educational attainment, and creative workers (together with other important socioeconomic controls), we unpack the model back to the two-step process and use a SEM modeling framework to investigate the relationships among inventive activity and potential inventors, regional technology levels, and regional productivity outcomes. Our results show almost no significant direct relationship between invention and productivity, except through technology. Clearly, the simplification of the "invention in/productivity out" model does not hold, which supports other work that questions the use of patents and patenting related measures as meaningful innovation inputs to processes that generate regional productivity and productivity gains. We also find that the most effective measure of regional inventive capacity, in terms of its effect on technology, productivity, and productivity growth is the share of the workforce engaged in creative activities.
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| 9. |
- Lobo, José, et al.
(författare)
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Urban Scaling and the Production Function for Cities
- 2013
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Ingår i: PLOS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 8:3
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The factors that account for the differences in the economic productivity of urban areas have remained difficult to measure and identify unambiguously. Here we show that a microscopic derivation of urban scaling relations for economic quantities vs. population, obtained from the consideration of social and infrastructural properties common to all cities, implies an effective model of economic output in the form of a Cobb-Douglas type production function. As a result we derive a new expression for the Total Factor Productivity (TFP) of urban areas, which is the standard measure of economic productivity per unit of aggregate production factors (labor and capital). Using these results we empirically demonstrate that there is a systematic dependence of urban productivity on city population size, resulting from the mismatch between the size dependence of wages and labor, so that in contemporary US cities productivity increases by about 11% with each doubling of their population. Moreover, deviations from the average scale dependence of economic output, capturing the effect of local factors, including history and other local contingencies, also manifest surprising regularities. Although, productivity is maximized by the combination of high wages and low labor input, high productivity cities show invariably high wages and high levels of employment relative to their size expectation. Conversely, low productivity cities show both low wages and employment. These results shed new light on the microscopic processes that underlie urban economic productivity, explain the emergence of effective aggregate urban economic output models in terms of labor and capital inputs and may inform the development of economic theory related to growth.
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| 10. |
- Rothwell, Jonathan, et al.
(författare)
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Patenting Prosperity : Invention and Economic Performance in the United States and its Metropolitan Areas
- 2013
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- "Patenting Prosperity: Invention and Economic Performance in the United States and its Metropolitan Areas" is the first analysis of its kind to present patenting trends on a regional level from 1980 to 2012. The report ranks all of the nation’s roughly 360 metropolitan areas on patenting levels and growth, while noting the firms and organizations responsible. It also analyzes how patenting has affected productivity levels in each region, comparing patents—which embody novel inventions—to other sources of economic dynamism, such as educational attainment.This report examines the importance of patents as a measure of invention to economic growth and explores why some areas are more inventive than others. Why should we expect there to be a relationship between patenting and urban economic development? As economist Paul Romer has written, the defining nature of ideas, in contrast to other economic goods, is that they are non-rival: their use by any one individual does not preclude others from using them. Although useful ideas can be freely transmitted and copied, the patent system guarantees, in principle, temporary protection from would-be competitors in the marketplace (i.e. excludability). Thus, one would expect regions to realize at least some of the value of invention, as has been shown for individual inventors and companies that patent. Yet there is no guarantee that patents generated in a specific location will generate wealth in that same location—a set of conditions (the presence of a skilled and diverse labor force, an “ecosystem” of businesses providing complementary goods and services, financing and marketing capabilities among them) have to be met for invention to be commercialized. Research has established that patents are correlated with economic growth across and within the same country over time. Yet, metropolitan areas play a uniquely important role in patenting, and the study of metropolitan areas within a single large country—the United States—allows one to isolate the role of patents from other potentially confounding factors like population size, industry concentration, and workforce characteristics.
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