| 1. |
- Alföldy, B., et al.
(författare)
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Measurements of air pollution emission factors for marine transportation in SECA
- 2013
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1867-1381 .- 1867-8548. ; 6:7, s. 1777-1791
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The chemical composition of the plumes of seagoing ships was measured during a two week long measurement campaign in the port of Rotterdam, Hoek van Holland The Netherlands, in September 2009. Altogether, 497 ships were monitored and a statistical evaluation of emission factors (g kg(-1) fuel) was provided. The concerned main atmospheric components were SO2, NO2, NOx and the aerosol particle number. In addition, the elemental and water-soluble ionic composition of the emitted particulate matter was determined. Emission factors were expressed as a function of ship type, power and crankshaft rotational speed. The average SO2 emission factor was found to be roughly half of what is allowed in sulphur emission control areas (16 vs. 30 g kg(-1) fuel), and exceedances of this limit were rarely registered. A significant linear relationship was observed between the SO2 and particle number emission factors. The intercept of the regression line, 4.8 x 10(15) (kg fuel)(-1), gives the average number of particles formed during the burning of 1 kg zero sulphur content fuel, while the slope, 2 x 10(18), provides the average number of particles formed with 1 kg sulphur burnt with the fuel. Water-soluble ionic composition analysis of the aerosol samples from the plumes showed that similar to 144 g of particulate sulphate was emitted from 1 kg sulphur burnt with the fuel. The mass median diameter of sulphate particles estimated from the measurements was similar to 42 nm.
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| 2. |
- Beecken, Jörg, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Airborne emission measurements of SO2, NOx and particles from individual ships using a sniffer technique
- 2014
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1867-1381 .- 1867-8548. ; 7:7, s. 1957-1968
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A dedicated system for airborne ship emission measurements of SO2, NOx and particles has been developed and used from several small aircraft. The system has been adapted for fast response measurements at 1 Hz, and the use of several of the instruments is unique. The uncertainty of the given data is about 20% for SO2 and 24% for NOx emission factors. The mean values with one standard deviation for multiple measurements of 158 ships measured from the air on the Baltic and North Sea during 2011 and 2012 show emission factors of 18.8+/-6.5 g kg(fuel)(-1), 66.6+/-23.4 g kg(fuel)(-1) and 1.8+/-1.3 1016 particles kg(fuel)(-1) for SO2, NOx and particle number, respectively. The particle size distributions were measured for particle diameters between 15 and 560 nm. The mean sizes of the particles are between 45 and 54 nm dependent on the distance to the source, and the number size distribution is monomodal. Concerning the sulfur fuel content, around 85% of the monitored ships comply with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) limits. The reduction of the sulfur emission control area (SECA) limit from 1.5 to 1% in 2010 appears to have contributed to reduction of sulfur emissions that were measured in earlier studies from 2007 to 2009. The presented method can be implemented for regular ship compliance monitoring.
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| 3. |
- Beecken, Jörg, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Emission factors of SO2, NOx and particles from ships in Neva Bay from ground-based and helicopter-borne measurements and AIS-based modeling
- 2015
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1680-7316 .- 1680-7324. ; 15:9, s. 5229-5241
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Emission factors of SO2, NOx and size-distributed particle numbers were measured for approximately 300 different ships in the Gulf of Finland and Neva Bay area during two campaigns in August/September 2011 and June/July 2012. The measurements were carried out from a harbor vessel and from an Mi-8 helicopter downwind of passing ships. Other measurements were carried out from shore sites near the island of Kronstadt and along the Neva River in the urban area of Saint Petersburg. Most ships were running at reduced speed (10 kn), i.e., not at their optimal load. Vessels for domestic and international shipping were monitored. It was seen that the distribution of the SO2 emission factors is bi-modal, with averages of 4.6 and 18.2 gSO(2) kg(fuel)(-1) for the lower and the higher mode, respectively. The emission factors show compliance with the 1% fuel sulfur content Sulfur Emission Control Areas (SECA) limit for 90% of the vessels in 2011 and 97% in 2012. The distribution of the NOx emission factor is mono-modal, with an average of 58 gNO(x) kg(fuel)(-1). The corresponding emission related to the generated power yields an average of 12.1 gNO(x) kWh(-1). The distribution of the emission factors for particulate number shows that nearly 90% of all particles in the 5.6 nm to 10 mu m size range were below 70 nm in diameter. The distribution of the corresponding emission factors for the mass indicates two separated main modes, one for particles between 30 and 300 nm and the other for above 2 mu m. The average particle emission factors were found to be in the range from 0.7 to 2.7 x 10(16) particles kg(fuel)(-1) and 0.2 to 3.4 gPM kg(fuel)(-1), respectively. The NOx and particulate emissions are comparable with other studies. The measured emission factors were compared, for individual ships, to modeled ones using the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM) of the Finnish Meteorological Institute. A reasonably good agreement for gaseous sulfur and nitrogen emissions can be seen for ships in international traffic, but significant deviations are found for inland vessels. Regarding particulate mass, the values of the modeled data are about 2-3 times higher than the measured results, which probably reflects the assumptions made in the modeled fuel sulfur content. The sulfur contents in the fuel retrieved from the measurements were lower than the previously used assumptions by the City of Saint Petersburg when carrying out atmospheric modeling, and using these measurements it was possible to better assess the impact of shipping on air quality.
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| 4. |
- Beecken, Jörg, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Performance assessment of state-of-the-art and novel methods for remote compliance monitoring of sulfur emissions from shipping
- 2023
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. - 1867-1381 .- 1867-8548. ; 16:23, s. 5883-5895
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The fuel sulfur content (FSC) of ocean-going and inland vessels was measured simultaneously by eight different state-of-the-art and novel monitoring systems during a 6-week campaign at the Elbe River, at a distance of about 10 km to the port of Hamburg, Germany. Both stationary and airborne systems on unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs) were operated by four participating partners in a side-by-side measurement setup to measure the emission factors of the same emission sources. A novel laser spectrometer, with significantly better-precision specifications as compared with the other instruments, was used for the first time for emission monitoring regarding the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annex VI regulations. The comparison took place in the North Sea sulfur emission control area (SECA), where the allowed FSC is limited to 0.10 %Sm/m. The unit %Sm/m relates to the percentage of mass sulfur per mass combusted fuel. In total, 966 plumes that originated from 436 different vessels were analysed in this study. At the same time, fuel samples obtained from 34 different vessels and bunker delivery notes (BDNs) from five frequently monitored vessels were used as a reference to assess the uncertainties of the different systems. Seven of the eight measurement systems tended to underestimate the FSC found from fuel samples and BDNs. A possible relation between underestimation and high relative humidities (above 80 %) was observed. The lowest systematic deviations were observed for the airborne systems and the novel laser spectrometer. The two UAV-borne systems showed total uncertainties of 0.07 %Sm/m and 0.09 %Sm/m (confidence level: 95 %). The novel laser spectrometer showed the lowest total uncertainty of 0.05 %Sm/m compared with other stationary sniffer systems, whose total uncertainties range from 0.08 %Sm/m to 0.09 %Sm/m. It was concluded that non-compliant vessels, with an actual FSC of the combusted fuel above 0.15 %Sm/m to 0.19 %Sm/m, can be detected by the compared systems with 95 % confidence.
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| 5. |
- Beecken, Jörg, 1982
(författare)
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Remote Measurements of Gas and Particulate Matter Emissions from Individual Ships
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Shipping significantly contributes to the world's anthropogenic emissions of sulfur, nitrogen species and particulate matter. These species affect the global radiative forcing as well as local acidification, eutrophication and human health. Studies show that 70 % of the global ship emissions occur within 400 km from land and it is estimated that about 60,000 premature deaths per year are related to these emissions.The importance of limiting the emission of air pollutants from shipping has been acknowledged by the international community, and policy makers have agreed on international legislation to do this. The current regulations include restrictions for the fuel sulfur content (FSC) and engine specific nitrogen oxide emissions. So far checks of fuel quality are conducted only occasionally, about 200 samples per year in the whole of Sweden, by taking bunker fuel samples as part of on-board inspections of ships at berth in harbors. There is a need for more emission measurements to monitor the compliance of individual ships with respect to the new legislation and to investigate their emissions regarding other pollutants.In this study, methods are presented which have been developed, as part of the Swedish project Identification of Gross-Polluting Ships (IGPS), to monitor and examine the gas and particulate matter emissions from individual ships remotely using extractive (sniffer) techniques and passive Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS). Two systems were developed, one fully-automated for the use from ground based stations and a second one for the use on aircraft to analyze ship emissions at open sea. Additionally, a plume capturing method was developed for detailed analysis of the composition of particles in single ship plumes. The mass specific emission factors of SO2, NOx and particulate matter from individual ships were measured from fixed stations, boats, airplanes and helicopters, covering the Baltic and North Sea regions.Since 2010 the pollutants in ship exhaust of more than 600 individual ship plumes from mobile platforms and more than 3,000 individual plumes from a fixed site at the harbor entrance of Gothenburg were analyzed. The results show a bi-modal behavior for the distribution of the SO2 emission factors, with international traffic on the higher end around 18 g(SO2)/kg(fuel) and regional traffic on the lower end around 5 g(SO2)/kg(fuel). For NOx, the emissions are distributed around 60 g(NOx)/kg(fuel). The uncertainties of these emission factors are estimated to be around 20 % and 25 % for SO2 and NOx, respectively. The majority of the emitted particles are smaller than 100 nm and it was estimated that 70 % of the particle mass is due to particles below 300 nm.The presented methods can be used for reliable control of compliance to legislation and to provide a level playing field for shipping operators. Conducted measurements indicate a compliance level to the until recently valid 1 % IMO sulfur limit of about 85 % for ships at open-sea and of more than 90 % for ships in or near to harbors. A clear impact of the recently introduced sulfur limit of 0.1 % to the observed SO2 emissions can be seen.
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| 6. |
- Loov, J. M. B., et al.
(författare)
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Field test of available methods to measure remotely SOx and NOx emissions from ships
- 2014
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1867-1381 .- 1867-8548. ; 7:8, s. 2597-2613
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Methods for the determination of ship fuel sulphur content and NOx emission factors based on remote measurements have been compared in the harbour of Rotterdam and compared to direct stack emission measurements on the ferry Stena Hollandica. The methods were selected based on a review of the available literature on ship emission measurements. They were either optical (LIDAR, Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS), UV camera), combined with model-based estimates of fuel consumption, or based on the so called "sniffer" principle, where SO2 or NOx emission factors are determined from simultaneous measurement of the increase of CO2 and SO2 or NOx concentrations in the plume of the ship compared to the background. The measurements were performed from stations at land, from a boat and from a helicopter. Mobile measurement platforms were found to have important advantages compared to the land-based ones because they allow optimizing the sampling conditions and sampling from ships on the open sea. Although optical methods can provide reliable results it was found that at the state of the art level, the "sniffer" approach is the most convenient technique for determining both SO2 and NOx emission factors remotely. The average random error on the determination of SO2 emission factors comparing two identical instrumental set-ups was 6 %. However, it was found that apparently minor differences in the instrumental characteristics, such as response time, could cause significant differences between the emission factors determined. Direct stack measurements showed that about 14% of the fuel sulphur content was not emitted as SO2. This was supported by the remote measurements and is in agreement with the results of other field studies. S, 1984, Notes on Heavy Fuel Oil
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| 7. |
- Mellqvist, Johan, 1965, et al.
(författare)
-
Certification of an aircraft and airborne surveillance of fuel sulfur content in ships at the SECA border
- 2017
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In 2015 new rules from the IMO and legislation from EU (Sulfur directive) and the US requires ships to run with maximum fuel sulfur content (FSC) of 0.1 % m/m in northern European and North American waters. In order to promote a level playing field within the shipping sector, there is a need for measurement systems that can make effective compliance control and this is the main objective of the CompMon project, funded through the European CEF program (Connecting Europe Facility). As part of this project, a sensor system has been certified for ship surveillance measurements in a Piper Navajo aircraft and it has been demonstrated for airborne measurements of FSC in individual ships on the English Channel. The measurement system consists of an optical module which measures total emissions of SO2 and NO2 in g/s and a sniffer system by which FSC is retrieved from extractive measurements of SO2 and CO2. It can be used from fixed sites, patrol vessels and from aircraft. The advantage with airborne surveillance is the capability to check ships that are operating in the main shipping lanes, up to 200 nautical miles from shore. The precision of the estimated FSC from the sniffer system is 0.05 % m/m and hence at the 95 % confidence limit, ships above a FSC of 0.2 % m/m can be checked. The sniffer system also has a negative bias in the FSC of approx- imately 0.04 % m/m which is accounted for in the FSC calculations. The optical system has larger measurement uncertainties than the sniffer but it is intended mostly for guid- ance of other controls. As part of the CompMon project, a measurements campaign with the Navajo Piper aircraft was carried out at the SECA (Sulfur Emission Control Area) border in the English Channel at longitude 5 W. Six flight missions with duration of 4 to 5 hours were carried out from September 2 to 10, 2016, flying from Brest airport. In this manner it was possible to cover the longitude range 2o - 6o W. During the campaign, 114 ships were measured with the sniffer system, corresponding to 71 ships inside the SECA and 42 ships outside. The level of compli- ance inside the SECA was here 87 % and this is considerably lower than measurements carried out elsewhere within CompMon in other parts of the SECA (95-99 %). Two thirds of the non-complying vessels were leav- ing the SECA. With the optical system 110 individual ships were measured, 42 outside and 68 inside the SE- CA. The measurements show a similar pattern as the sniffer data but with a few false values. Nevertheless it is shown that both low and high FSC ships will be classified correctly with about 80-90 % probability with the optical system and this system is hence very promising as a tool to guide further compliance controls.
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| 8. |
- Mellqvist, Johan, 1965, et al.
(författare)
-
Fixed remote surveillance of fuel sulfur content in ships from fixed sites in the Göteborg ship channel and Öresund bridge
- 2017
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In 2015 new rules from the IMO and legislation from EU (Sulfur directive) and the US requires ships to run with maximum fuel sulfur content (FSC) of 0.1 % m/m in northern European and North American waters. In order to promote a level playing field within the shipping sector, there is a need for measurement systems that can make effective compliance control and this is the main objective of the CompMon project, funded through the European CEF program (Connecting Europe Facility). As part of this project, an automatic sniffer sensor system has been applied in the Göteborg ship channel at the Älvsborg island during 3 years (2014- 2016) and at the Öresund Bridge during two months at the end of 2016. The typical distances from the ships here varied between 500 -1000 m. The sniffer system is based on several extractive instruments measuring concentrations of SO2 and CO2 and others species, such as NOx, in the ship emission plumes that drift over the measurement station. In addition to fixed stations, the system can also be used from mobile platforms such as harbor patrol vessels and aircraft. From the data above, together with information about the ships from AIS (Automatic Identification System) and wind data, the FSC is automatically calculated and the ship is identi- fied. This is done using software developed as part of this project (Single Emitter identification Tool). The measurement precision (1σ) of the sniffer system is approx. 0.04 % m/m for ships using a FSC of 0.1 % m/m. The sniffer system also has a negative bias in the measured FSC, varying between 0.04 % to 0.08 % m/m and this is accounted for when calculating the threshold for non-compliance. Based on the above, it is possible to identify ships with FSC above 0.18 % m/m with 95% confidence limit, if the bias is corrected for statistically. For the measurements at the Älvsborg island site in 2014 and 2015, the corresponding limit is higher, 0.29 % m/m, due to a measurement artifact that was eliminated in 2016. On board measurements in 2015 and 2016 by the Swedish port state control authority shows that most non-compliant ships had FSCs be- tween 0.1 % to 0.2 % m/m when controlled at berth and this is generally below the 95% confidence limit threshold of the sniffer. Therefore many non-compliant ships will not be detected when using the sniffer close to harbors and a more precise sensor is therefore preferred. The measurements at the Älvsborg island were carried out during a time period when the allowed FSC limit changed significantly. The data for 2014, corresponding to more than 4000 measurements of 500 individual ships, shows that 99 % of the ships were using compliant fuel below the FSC limit of 1 % m/m. In 2015 the FSC limit changed to 0.1 % m/m. The measurements in 2015 and 2016, corresponding to the same amount of ships as in 2014, showed that 91.5 % and 98 %, respectively, were using compliant fuel with respect to FSC. The lower compliance rate in 2015 compared to 2016 is potentially influenced by measurement artifacts that were later eliminated in 2016. At the Öresund Bridge. 58 ships were measured as part of the CompMon pro- ject. The measurements continued another month with support from the interreg project Envisum, with anoth- er 62 ships measured. The compliance level at the Öresund Bridge corresponds to 98 %. This is actually com- parable to the corresponding measurements elsewhere and at the Älvsborg island site during the same time period.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
- Mellqvist, Johan, 1965, et al.
(författare)
-
Quantification of stack emissions from marine vessels
- 2016
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Ingår i: Air and Waste Management Association - Air Quality Measurement Methods and Technology Conference 2016. - 9781510822535 ; , s. 416-421
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Ship emission data from fixed and mobile platforms were obtained during 5 weeks in October and November of 2015. The main objective was to study the "real life" ship emissions of gases and particles in different modes of ship operation in the vicinity of the harbor, from open sea to berth. These emissions can be used to calculate the impact of shipping activities on air quality in the LA basin. Since ships are supposed to run on low sulfur fuel it is interesting how the new low sulfur fuel impacts also emissions of particles, in addition to sulfur. During the project we found several ships running on high sulfur fuel. During the presentation we will describe the method and show example of data from the project.
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| 11. |
- Mellqvist, Johan, 1965, et al.
(författare)
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Remote Quantification of Stack Emissions from Marine Vessels
- 2016
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Ingår i: A&WMA’s 109th Annual Conference & Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, June 2016. - 1052-6102. ; 1, s. 579-583
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Stationary and mobile (on-vessel) measurements of ship specific emission factors and total emission were carried out in the port of Los Angeles and Long Beach. The measurement techniques developed to characterize individual ship emissions were presented. The data were obtained with a zenith DOAS technique for NO 2 and "in-situ" sniffer technique for SO 2 , NO x , CO 2 , and particulates. The measured particle properties corresponded to particulate number, particulate mass, and black and organic carbon. Total emissions of NO 2 from the harbors were also obtained through mobile optical zenith sky measurements. The potential VOC emissions were investigated when fueling the ships and other VOC sources in the harbor using techniques like the Solar Occultation Flux technique. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the A & WMA's 109th Annual Conference & Exhibition (New Orleans, LA 6/20-23/2016).
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| 12. |
- Mellqvist, Johan, 1965, et al.
(författare)
-
Surveillance of Sulfur Emissions from Ships in Danish Waters
- 2017
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In 2015 new rules from the IMO and legislation from EU (Sulfur directive) requires ships to run with maximum fuel sulfur content (FSC) of 0.1 % m/m in northern European waters. In order to promote a level playing field within the shipping sector, there is a need for measurement systems that can make effective compliance control. This report describes the results from ship emission measurements on the waters surrounding Denmark from June 2015 to July 2017 on behalf of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. The overall aim was to carry out operational surveillance of ships with respect to the EU sulfur directive and particularly the sulfur limits for marine fuel in the European Sulfur Emission Control Area (0.10 %), which entered into force on January 1st 2015, as well as to guide further port state control of ships at the destination harbors of the ships, both in Denmark and other ports. During the project the FSC of individual ships was estimated by perform- ing spot checks of exhaust plumes of individual ships. This was conducted by automatic gas sniffer measurements at the Great Belt Bridge and airborne surveillance measurements using sniffer and optical sensors. The data from the fixed system were transmitted in real time to a web database and alarms were triggered for high FSC ships in the form of emails. The report describes the technical systems and their performance and the general compliance levels of the measured ships. The measurement systems have been developed by Chalmers University of Technology through Swedish national funding and the EU project CompMon. The airborne dataset corresponds to approx. 900 individual ships, measured by sniffer or/and optical sensor over 245 flight hours. The optical sensor has low precision and is therefore used as a first alert system to identify ships running on high sulfur fuel. The precision of the airborne FSC meas- urements by the sniffer system is better and it is estimated as ± 0.05 % m/m (1σ) with a systematic bias of - 0.045 % m/m. Therefore only ships running with FSC of 0.2 % m/m or higher can be de- tected as non-compliant ships with good confidence limit (95 %) by the airborne sniffer system. The airborne measurements during 2015 and 2016 on Danish waters show that 94 % of the ships complied with the EU Sulphur directive, at the 95 % confidence limit. The compliance rate was lower, 92 %, during the 2nd half of 2016. In the period June 2015 to May 2017, 8426 sniffer measurements of individual ships were carried out at the Great Belt Bridge. However, there were technical problems in the first part of the project and the sniffer therefore had reduced sensitivity the first year and only high sulfur ships (> 1 % FSC) could be detected as non-complying vessels with appropriate statistical confidence. The precision in the estimated FSC by the fixed sniffer system is estimated as ± 0.04 % m/m (1σ) with a systematic bias of - 0.055 % m/m. Therefore only ships running with FSC of 0.18 % or higher can be detected as non-compliant ships with good confidence limit (95 %) by the fixed sniffer system. The data for the period June 2016 to October 2016 show a compliance rate of 94.6 % which increased to 97.4 % in the period January 2017 to May 2017. The compliance level during different time periods and platforms varied between 92-97 %. Here 1 - 2 % of the ships were in gross non-compliance with the EU sulfur directive with FSC values above 0.5 % m/m. There were differences over time, with the highest values in the summer of 2016. The compliance level was close to the values (95 %) measured by port state control authorities in Sweden and Denmark 2015 and 2016. When comparing ships measured by port state and the ones in this project it can be deduced that the efficiency of finding non-compliant vessels could be increased by at least a factor of 4, if the port state controls were guided by measurements. Most of the non-compliant ships (90 %) were measured high only once. But there were cases with individual ships and ship operators that were more abundant in the non-compliance statistics. The non- compliant ships that were seldom in the area around Denmark had higher emissions of SO2 than the non-compliant ones that operated their more frequently. On several occasions during this study we encountered ships equipped with scrubbers that were non-compliant with respect to the EU sulfur directive.
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| 13. |
- Van Roy, Ward, et al.
(författare)
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International maritime regulation decreases sulfur dioxide but increases nitrogen oxide emissions in the North and Baltic Sea
- 2023
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Ingår i: Communications Earth and Environment. - 2662-4435. ; 4:1
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from shipping have been regulated internationally for more than fifteen years. Emissions reduction from shipping provides benefits for human health and the environment, but the effectiveness of regulations in reducing ship emissions is less well understood. Here, we examine how the establishment of European Emission Control Areas and other international maritime regulations in the North and Baltic Seas affect sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions in the region. We combine and analyze more than 110,000 ship plume measurements, inspection results, and satellite data from 2018 to 2022. We find that compliance rates for sulfur emissions are higher near ports than in open waters. However, the regulations did not affect the concentration of nitrogen oxide emissions, which increased in the past three years. These findings highlight the need for enhanced emission regulations that improve air quality.
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