| 1. |
- De Geer, Hans, et al.
(författare)
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Reconciling CSR with the Role of the Corporation in Welfare States : The Problematic Swedish Example
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 89:Supplement 3, s. 269-283
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This article uses the Swedish example to illustrate how corporate social responsibility (CSR) is understood and interpreted when it enters a welfare state context where social issues have traditionally been the domains of the state and of politicians. Among the implications one finds a relative scepticism of traditionally strong actors on the labour market, such as the state, trade unions and employers. This relative scepticism is primarily explained by an enduring idea of the role of business in society which stands in contradistinction to the idea expressed in the corporate centred idea of CSR. Still, CSR gains a foothold in the welfare state context, mainly because of the flexibility of the concept which allows for 'escape routes' - an understanding of CSR that focusses on issues at arm's length from the traditional welfare context. CSR also benefits from being codified in soft regulation, thereby becoming a legitimate super- national point of reference for all relevant actors. The possibility of developing new global arenas for espousing ideals partly in conflict with traditional ones also explains why CSR has become an established concept. In Sweden, such arenas have been created through the activities of multinational corporations, NGOs, investors, the media, consultants and other actors.
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| 2. |
- Egels-Zandén, Niklas, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Evaluating Strategies for Negotiating Workers' Rights in Transnational Corporations: The Effects of Codes of Conduct and Global Agreements on Workplace Democracy
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 76:2, s. 207-223
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Following the offshoring of production to developing countries by transnational corporations (TNCs), unions and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have criticised working conditions at TNCs’ offshore factories. This has led to the emergence of two different approaches to operationalising TNC responsibilities for workers’ rights in developing countries: codes of conduct and global agreements. Despite the importance of this development, few studies have systematically compared the effects of these two different ways of dealing with workers’ rights. This article addresses this gap by analysing how codes of conduct and global agreements both independently and interactively affect workers’ rights. We do this based on a qualitative study of the Sri Lankan operations of a Swedish TNC in Sri␣Lanka, and on interviews with union and NGO representatives actively involved in codes of conduct and global agreements. Our results indicate that global agreements independently address all the aspects included in codes of conduct, while also addressing additional, more process-oriented aspects of workers’ rights. Hence, on their own, global agreements seem to comprise the superior approach to promoting workers’ rights. Furthermore, our results indicate that promoting codes of conduct has negative interactive effects on global agreements. Based on these results, we argue that the current focus on codes of conduct is counterproductive for the promotion of workers’ rights.
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| 3. |
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| 4. |
- Egels-Zandén, Niklas, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Post-Partnership Strategies for Defining Corporate Responsibility: The Business Social Compliance Initiative
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544. ; 70:2, s. 175-189
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- While cross-sectoral partnerships are frequently presented as a way to achieve sustainable development, some corporations that first tried using the strategy are now changing direction. Growing tired of what are, in their eyes, inefficient and unproductive cross-sectoral partnerships, firms are starting to form post-cross-sectoral partnerships (‚post-partnerships’) open exclusively to corporations. This paper examines one such post-partnership project, the Business Social Compliance Initiative (BSCI), to analyse the possibility of post-partnerships establishing stable definitions of ‚corporate responsibility’. We do this by creating a theoretical framework based on actor-network theory (ANT) and institutional theory. Using this framework, we show that post-partnerships suffer from the paradox of striving to marginalise those stakeholders whose support they need␣for establishing stable definitions of ‚corporate responsibility’. We conclude by discussing whether or not post-partnership strategies, despite this paradox, can be expected to establish stable definitions of ‚corporate responsibility’.
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| 5. |
- Egels-Zandén, Niklas, 1978
(författare)
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Suppliers' Compliance with MNCs' Codes of Conduct: Behind the Scenes at Chinese Toy Suppliers
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544. ; 75:1, s. 45-62
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Despite increased academic and practitioner interest in codes of conduct, there has been little research into the actual compliance of suppliers in developing countries with the codes of conduct of multinational corporations (MNCs). This paper addresses this lack by analysing Chinese suppliers’ level of compliance with Swedish toy retailers’ codes of conduct. Based on unannounced and unofficial interviews with employees of Chinese suppliers, the study shows that all of the nine studied suppliers breached some of the standards in the toy retailers’ codes, with over two-thirds of the suppliers not complying with the majority of the studied standards. While there are different explanations of this lack of compliance, the main explanation seems to be that Chinese suppliers successfully deceive toy retailers’ monitoring organisations by decoupling the formal monitored part of their organisation from the actual operational part of their organisation. The paper concludes with a discussion of how to increase compliance with MNCs’ codes of conduct.
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| 6. |
- Egels-Zandén, Niklas, 1978
(författare)
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TNC Motives for Signing International Framework Agreements: A Continuous Bargaining Model of Stakeholder Pressure
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 84:4, s. 529-547
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Over the past decade, discussion has flourished among practitioners and academics regarding workers’ rights in developing countries. The lack of enforcement of national labour laws and the limited protection of workers’ rights in developing countries have led workers’ rights representatives to attempt to establish transnational industrial relations systems to complement existing national systems. In practice, these attempts have mainly been operationalised in unilateral codes of conduct; recently, however, negotiated international framework agreements (IFAs) have been proposed as an alternative. Despite their growing importance, few studies have empirically studied IFAs. This paper starts to fill this gap by studying why corporations adopt IFAs, based on a qualitative study of the process leading to the signing of a recent IFA. The study’s findings complement existing research into why corporations adopt IFAs, codes of conduct, and CSR policies by demonstrating that corporate motives can be linked to a desire to retain a trusting relationship with the labour union movement. In addition, the findings indicate that the discrete campaign model of stakeholder pressure dominant in previous research should be complemented by a continuous bargaining model of stakeholder pressure. The paper concludes by discussing differences between these conceptual models of stakeholder pressure and avenues for future research.
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| 7. |
- Egels-Zandén, Niklas, 1978
(författare)
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Transnational Governance of Workers' Rights: Outlining a Research Agenda
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 87:2, s. 169-188
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In twentieth century Europe and the USA, industrial relations, labour, and workers’ rights issues have been handled through collective bargaining and industrial agreements between firms and unions, with varying degrees of government intervention from country to country. This industrial relations landscape is currently undergoing fundamental change with the emergence of transnational industrial relations systems that complement existing national industrial relations systems. Despite the significance of this ongoing change, existing research has only started to explore the implications of this change for how workers’ rights are governed around the globe. This paper addresses this gap by outlining an agenda for future research into the transnational governance of workers’ rights. Fulfilling such a research agenda would be both challenging, as it requires combining the so far divergent industrial relations and business ethics research streams, and rewarding, as it provides ample scope for promising future research.
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| 8. |
- Hansson, Sven Ove
(författare)
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Informed consent out of context
- 2006
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 63:2, s. 149-154
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Several attempts have been made to transfer the concept of informed consent from medical and research ethics to dealing with affected groups in other areas such as engineering, land use planning, and business management. It is argued that these attempts are unsuccessful since the concept of informed consent is inadequate for situations in which groups of affected persons are dealt with collectively (rather than individually, as in clinical medicine). There are several reasons for this. The affected groups from which informed consent is sought cannot be identified with sufficient precision. Informed consent is associated with individual veto power, but it does not appear realistic to give veto power to all individuals who are affected for instance by an engineering project. Most importantly, the concept of informed consent puts focus on the public's acceptance of ready-made proposals rather than on its participation in the decision-making process as a whole, which includes the development of alternatives for the decision. Therefore, the concept of informed consent is not applicable to a company's relations with groups and collectives. It may, however, be applicable to a company's relations with individual persons such as customers and employees.
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| 9. |
- Hearn, Jeff, 1947-, et al.
(författare)
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"Women home and away" : transnational managerial work and gender relations
- 2008
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 83:1, s. 41-54
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This article addresses the intersections, even blurrings, of two "homes" and two "aways" - the personal, 'private' home and the corporate 'public' 'away', and the national home country and corporate base and the transnational work away. Drawing on 40 semi-structured interviews with women and men top and middle managers in seven multinational corporations located in Finland, we examine the complex relations among transnational managerial work, corporate careers and personal, marriage and family-type relations, and their differences for women and men managers. This shows the very different personal and social worlds inhabited by senior women and men managers, and how transnational processes can make those differences even greater.
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| 10. |
- Helin, Sven, 1962-, et al.
(författare)
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An inquiry into the study of corporate codes of ethics
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 75:3, s. 253-271
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper takes its point of departure in an article by Stevens [Stevens, B.: 1994, Journal of Business Ethics 54, 163–171], in which she identified a lack of knowledge regarding how corporate codes of ethics are communicated and affect behavior in organizations. Taking heed of this suggested gap, we review studies on corporate codes of ethics with an empirical content, published since 1994. The conclusion of the review is that we still lack knowledge on how codes work, how they are communicated and how they are transformed inside organizations. Stevens’ plea could even be extended, arguing that the knowledge gap might be of even more significance than in the mid-1990s. Some directions for how this situation can be approached in future studies are outlined in the paper.
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| 11. |
- Helin, Sven, 1962-, et al.
(författare)
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Codes, ethics and cross-cultural differences : stories from the implementation of a corporate code of ethics in a MNC subsidiary
- 2008
-
Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 82:2, s. 281-291
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this article, we focus on the cross- cultural aspects of the implementation of an American company’s code of ethics into its Swedish subsidiary. We identify the cross-cultural stories that the receivers in the subsidiary use when trying to explain the parent’s code and conceptualize these stories as part of an emerging narrative of national belonging and differences. The receivers resisted the code by amplifying the importance of national identity. Rather than stimulating a discussion on ethics that might have strengthened the ties between the parent and the subsidiary, the outcome of the code implementation had the opposite effect. The article concludes by stressing the process of implementing codes across cultures rather than code content.
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| 12. |
- Kallio, Tomi J.
(författare)
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Taboos in corporate social responsibility discourse
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 74:2, s. 165-175
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Corporations today have been engineered by CEOs and other business advocates to look increasingly green and responsible. However, alarming cases such as Enron, Parmalat and Worldcom bear witness that a belief in corporate goodness is still nothing other than naive. Although many scholars seemingly recognize this, they still avoid touching on the most sensitive and problematic issues, the taboos. As a consequence, discussion of important though problematic topics is often stifled. The article identifies three ‘grand’ taboos of CSR discourse and explicitly raises them for discussion. They are the taboos of amoral business, continuous economic growth, and the political nature of CSR. It is suggested that CSR can only be as advanced as its taboos. The critical potential of the field remains underdeveloped as a consequence of the taboos, and in many cases the CSR discourse merely produces alluring but empty rhetoric about sustainability and responsible business.
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| 13. |
- Lennerfors, Thomas Taro
(författare)
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The transformation of transparency - on the act on public procurement and the right to appeal in the context of the war on corruption
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 73:4, s. 381-390
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This article discusses the alleged anti-corruption effects of procurement reforms by presenting the European Act on Public Procurement and the increasing number of appeals filed by suppliers due to perceived misevaluations of tenders and perceived impairments of transparency. The delays and costs that arise from this right to appeal are studied in the Swedish context with the aim of contributing to the debate on corruption in two ways. First, instead of using the modern definition of corruption, the ancient definition is introduced to explain anti-corruption efforts, focusing on corruption as deviations from a pristine standard as opposed to corruption as the abuse of public power for private gain. Second, it will be argued that the fight against corruption in the practical implementation of the European Act on Public Procurement jeopardizes efficiency and might devaluate competence. However, striving for the total elimination of corruption-an evil that has to be fought disregarding the consequences-is integral in the war against it.
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| 14. |
- Lindblom, Lars
(författare)
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Dissolving the moral dilemma of whistleblowing
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 76:4, s. 413-426
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The ethical debate on whistleblowing concerns centrally the conflict between the right to political free speech and the duty of loyalty to the organization where one works. This is the moral dilemma of whistleblowing. Political free speech is justified because it is a central part of liberal democracy, whereas loyalty can be motivated as a way of showing consideration for one's associates. The political philosophy of John Rawls is applied to this dilemma, and it is shown that the requirement of loyalty, in the sense that is needed to create the moral dilemma of whistleblowing, is inconsistent with that theory. In this sense, there is no moral dilemma of whistleblowing. This position has been labelled extreme in that it says that whistleblowing is always morally permitted. In a discussion and rejection of Richard De George's criteria on permissible whistleblowing, it is pointed out that the mere rejection of loyalty will not lead to an extreme position; harms can still be taken into account. Furthermore, it is argued that the best way is, in this as in most other political circumstances, to weigh harms is provided by the free speech argument from democracy.
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| 15. |
- Muhr, Sara Louise, et al.
(författare)
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How Can I Become a Responsible Subject? Towards a Practice-Based Ethics of Responsiveness
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1573-0697 .- 0167-4544. ; 90:2, s. 265-277
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Approaches to business ethics can be roughly divided into two streams: aEuro(1)codes of behavior' and aEuro(1)forms of subjectification', with code-oriented approaches clearly dominating the field. Through an elaboration of poststructuralist approaches to moral philosophy, this paper questions the emphasis on codes of behaviour and, thus, the conceptions of the moral and responsible subject that are inherent in rule-based approaches. As a consequence of this critique, the concept of a practice-based aEuro(1)ethics of responsiveness' in which ethics is never final but rather always aEuro(1)to come', is investigated. In such an approach the ethical self is understood as being continuously constituted within power/knowledge relations. Following this line, we ask how one can become a responsible subject while also acknowledging certain limits of full responsibility. We thereby explore responsibility as a considered but unconditional openness in response to the other.
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| 16. |
- Nilsson, Jonas, 1978-
(författare)
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Investment with a conscience : Examining the impact of pro-social attitudes and perceived financial performance on socially responsible investment behavior
- 2008
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 83:2, s. 307-325
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This article addresses the growing industry of retail socially responsible investment (SRI) profiled mutual funds. Very few previous studies have examined the final consumer of SRI profiled mutual funds. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to, in an exploratory manner, examine the impact of a number of pro-social, financial performance, and socio-demographic variables on SRI behavior in order to explain why investors choose to invest different proportions of their investment portfolio in SRI profiled funds. An ordinal logistic regression analysis on 528 private investors revealed that two of the three pro-social variables had a positive impact on how much the consumer invested in SRI profiled funds. Moreover, there was proof of a non-altruistic motive for investing in SRI as consumers who perceive that financial return of SRI is equal or better than “regular” mutual funds, invested a greater proportion of their portfolio in SRI profiled mutual funds. Furthermore, the results showed that women and better-educated investors were more likely to invest a greater proportion of their investment portfolio in SRI. Overall, the findings indicate that both financial perceptions and pro-social attitudes are connected to consumer investment in SRI.
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| 17. |
- Norberg, Peter
(författare)
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"I don't Care that People don't Like What I Do" - Business Codes Viewed as Invisible or Visible Restrictions
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Verlag (Germany). - 1573-0697 .- 0167-4544. ; 86, s. 211-225
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Research about codes of corporate ethics has hitherto taken a hypothetical, correct meaning of codes for granted. The article problematises the dichotomous categories intrinsic and subjective meanings of codes. I address the question if professionals in finance accept codes of business. The particular mentality of stockbrokers and traders constructs the way they judge restrictions such as company codes of ethics. While neglecting dimensions of ethics beyond known rules, brokers and traders distrust good ethics as a possible end in itself. Many professionals in the financial market perceive efforts to integrate ethical reasoning in work as only means for maximising business opportunities.
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| 18. |
- Persson, Anders J.
(författare)
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The contract of employment : ethical dimensions
- 2006
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 66:4, s. 407-415
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper, the nature of the contract of employment is explored from an ethical point of view. It is argued that certain normative arguments should be taken into account in order to justify such a contract. Furthermore, an argument is developed against the claim that (a) the individual's freedom of decision and (b) the practice of institutional arrangements are sufficient to justify a contract of employment. The dimensional analysis offered shows that further conditions are needed: (a) must be elaborated and interpreted to the extent that this condition is not sufficient - rather sub-criteria regarding the agent's state of knowledge must be met; and (b) should be supplemented by a demand for fairness. A tentative analysis of existing work contracts is the starting point for the ethical analysis. The aim is to show what a legitimate, or reasonable, contract of employment will require. Finally, some important normative implications and consequences regarding the contract's normative status are discussed.
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
- Sandberg, Joakim, 1979, et al.
(författare)
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The heterogeneity of socially responsible investment
- 2008
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - Dordrecht : D. Reidel. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 87:4, s. 519-533
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Many writers have commented on the heterogeneity of the socially responsible investment (SRI) movement. However, few have actually tried to understand and explain it, and even fewer have discussed whether the opposite – standardisation – is possible and desirable. In this article, we take a broader perspective on the issue of the heterogeneity of SRI. We distinguish between four levels on which heterogeneity can be found: the terminological, definitional, strategic and practical. Whilst there is much talk about the definitional ambiguities of SRI, we suggest that there is actually some agreement on the definitional level. There are at least three explanations which we suggest can account for the heterogeneity on the other levels: cultural and ideological differences between different regions, differences in values, norms and ideology between various SRI stakeholders, and the market setting of SRI. Discussing the implications of the three explanations for the SRI market, we suggest that there is reason to be sceptical about the possibilities of standardisation if not standardisation is imposed top-down. Whether this kind of standardisation is desirable or not, we argue, depends on what the motives for it would be. To the extent that standardisation may facilitate the mainstreaming of SRI, it could be a good thing – but we entertain doubts about whether mainstreaming really requires standardisation.
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| 21. |
- Sandin, Per
(författare)
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Approaches to Ethics for Corporate Crisis Management
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 87:1, s. 109-116
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The ethics of corporate crisis management is a seriously underdeveloped field. Among recent proposals in the area, two contributions stand out: Seeger and Ulmer's (2001) virtue ethics approach to crisis management ethics and Simola's (2003) ethics of care. In the first part of the paper, I argue that both contributions are problematic: Seeger and Ulmer focus on top management and propose virtues that lack substance and are in need of further development. Simola's proposal is also fraught with difficulty, since it seems to conceive of ethics of care as a course of action that can be chosen in a crisis, something which runs contrary to the idea of caring. In the second part of the paper, I argue that Simola and Seeger and Ulmer are nevertheless on the right track, and I propose some directions for further development of the ethics of corporate crisis management. I argue that the value of codes of conduct is limited. Furthermore, I propose a way of identifying relevant virtues for corporate crisis management and discuss a problem that is prevalent in crisis management ethics (the temptation of ad hoc utilitarianism).
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| 22. |
- Svensson, Göran, et al.
(författare)
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A Model of Business Ethics
- 2008
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - Dordrecht : Springer Netherlands. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 77:3, s. 303-322
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- It appears that in the 30 years that business ethics has been a discipline in its own right a model of business ethics has not been proffered. No one appears to have tried to explain the phenomenon known as 'business ethics' and the ways that we as a society interact with the concept, therefore, the authors have addressed this gap in the literature by proposing a model of business ethics that the authors hope will stimulate debate. The business ethics model consists of three principal components (i.e. expectations, perceptions and evaluations) that are interconnected by five sub-components (i.e. society expects; organizational values, norms and beliefs; outcomes; society evaluates; and reconnection). The introduced model makes a contribution to the creation of a conceptual framework for business ethics. A few tentative conclusions may be drawn from the introduced model of business ethics. The model aspires to be highly dynamic. The ultimate outcome is dependent upon the evolution of time and contexts. It is also dependent upon and provides reference to the behaviours and perceptions of people. The model proposes business ethics to be a continuous and an iterative process. There is no actual end of the process, but a constant reconnection to the initiation of successive process iterations of the business ethics model. The principals and sub-components of the model construct the dynamics of this continuous process. They provide guidance on what and how to explore our common efforts to understand the phenomenon known as business ethics. The model provides opportunities for further research in the field of business ethics.
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| 23. |
- Svensson, Göran, et al.
(författare)
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Ethical Structures and Processes of Corporations Operating in Australia, Canada and Sweden : a Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Study
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - Dordrecht : Springer Netherlands. - 0167-4544 .- 1573-0697. ; 86:4, s. 485-506
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Based on the ‘Partnership Model of Corporate Ethics’ (Wood, 2002), this study examines the ethical structures and processes that are put in place by organizations to enhance the ethical business behavior of staff. The study examines the use of these structures and processes amongst the top companies in the three countries of Australia, Canada, and Sweden over two time periods (2001–2002 and 2005–2006). Subsequently, a combined comparative and longitudinal approach is applied in the study, which we contend is a unique approach in the area of business ethics. The findings of the study indicate that corporations operating in Sweden have utilized ethical structures and processes differently than their Canadian and/or Australian counterparts, and that in each culture the way that companies fashion their approach to business ethics appears congruent with their national cultural values. There does, however, appear to be a convergence of views within the organizations of each culture, as the Swedish companies appear to have been more influenced in 2005–2006 by an Anglo-Saxon business paradigm than they have been in the past.
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| 24. |
- Tullberg, Jan
(författare)
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Moral compliance and the concealed charm of prudence
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Business Ethics. - : Springer Verlag (Germany). - 1573-0697 .- 0167-4544. ; 89:4, s. 599-612
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The article discusses morality from the perspective of compliance. The expectation that rules easily will be internalized and then followed makes very unrealistic assumptions about human behavior. There are good reasons to put more trust in prudence - amorality supported by incentives - than pure morality. There are reasons to be critical to morals that have no prospect to be developed into prudence. Such a preference for a prudent morality is also a criterion for selection among different suggestions of moral rules. A normative suggestion in the Prisoner' s Dilemma exemplifies the case of prudent morality. The player should play contribute if the expected value of that choice exceeds his payoff of mutua! defection. This suggestion is in line with Gauthier' s rules for constrained maximizers. Empirical evidence indicates strong preferences for symmetric outcomes: People tend to contribute rather than defect if the other player also is expected to contribute; otherwise mutual defection is the preferred outcome. Fruitful revisions of the game are more likely to be found in modifying the payoffs of playing defection than in seeing the players' priority of their personal payoff as the main obstacle for cooperation. The article questions the value of an absolute morality and suggests a morality that is more of a prudent policy than a categorical imperative. A conviction of a good average result in the long run is the most relevant argument for complying with a rule.
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