| 1. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
-
A Training Simulator for Crushing Plant Operators
- 2012
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Ingår i: XXVI International Mineral Processing Congress (IMPC 2012: Innovative Processing for Sustainable Growth; New Delhi; India; 24 September 2012 through 28 September 2012). - 9788190171434 ; , s. 2164-2171
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Crushing plants are widely used around the world as a pre-processing step in the mineral and mining industries and as standalone processing plants in the aggregates industry. Despite automation and different advanced model predictive control a lot of the process is still managed by operators. The operators affect a lot of the performance. The numbers of the improvement they can achieve are at least as big as the advanced control algorithms’, today. Therefore it is also important to train the operators so they know how to behave in different situations. Models for crushers and other production units have been developed during the years and the latest add is the different units’ dynamic behavior being brought in, which gives the crushing plants dynamic time dependant performance. This can be used as a simulator for operators training. By connecting a Human Machine Interface (HMI) to a dynamic simulator with the models incorporated, a training environment for operators can be achieved. In this paper a dynamic crushing plant simulator implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK has been connected to an HMI via a PLC. The HMI is placed in a control room at the university and complemented with monitors showing sequences from the process connected to the simulations, thus creating a realistic control room for training. In the created training environment the operators can be trained under realistic conditions. Simple training scenarios and how they could be simulated are discussed. Apart from the increased level of knowledge and experience among the operators, the time is an important factor. While a real crushing plant is still being built, the operators to be can already be trained, saving a lot of the commissioning time.
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| 2. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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An On-line Training Simulator Built on Dynamic Simulations of Crushing Plants
- 2013
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Ingår i: IFAC Proceedings Volumes (IFAC-PapersOnline). - 2405-8963. - 9783902823427 ; 15:1, s. 218-223
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Crushing plants are widely used around the world as a pre-processing step in the mineral and mining industries or as standalone processing plants for final products in the aggregates industry. Despite automation and different types of advanced model predictive control, many the processes are still managed by operators. The skill of the operators influences the process performance and thus production yield. Therefore, it is important to train the operators so they know how to behave in different situations and to make them able to operate the process in the best possible way. Different types of models for crushers and other production units have been developed during the years and the latest improvement is the addition of dynamic behavior which gives the crushing plants a time dependent behavior and performance. This can be used as a simulator for operators training. By connecting an Internet based Human Machine Interface (WebHMI) to a dynamic simulator with the models incorporated, an on-line training environment for operators can be achieved. In this paper, a dynamic crushing plant simulator implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK has been connected to a WebHMI. The WebHMI is accessible via the Internet, thus creating a realistic control room for operators’ training. In the created training environment, the operators can be trained under realistic conditions. Simple training scenarios and how they could be simulated are discussed. Apart from the increased level of knowledge and experience among the operators, the time aspect is an important factor. While a real crushing plant is still being built, the operators to be can already be trained, saving a lot of the commissioning and ramp up time.
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| 3. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
-
Development of a cognitive supporting operator training environment
- 2014
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Ingår i: 27th International Mineral Processing Congress, IMPC 2014, Santiago, Chile, 20-24 October 2014.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In aggregate production and mining the operators are responsible for controlling and monitoring the process to maintain high plant throughput and safe operation. Operators have to make different decisions to control the process due to changed demand on the operation from both management and conditions of the process. The quality of the response and the time it takes for an operator to respond to altered demand relies on what information is available and the experience of the operator.In this work a dynamic simulation platform has been developed to be used for operator training. Models for representing production units and process control for plant simulations have been developed and implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK to simulate time-dependent plant behavior. Stochastic and scheduled events are included using the discrete events simulation toolbox SimEvents. The human-machine interface was developed using the human-machine interface software ICONICS. The operators’ cognitive process, in interpreting the plants semantic, has been studied by observations and with informal interviews with operators. This was done to get information about the daily operation and the problems that occur in the process. By interacting with operators that experience different physical interactions with the process; more qualitative e-learning software for supporting operator training in a dynamic operator environment could be developed. The quality of the operator training environment was evaluated with a usability study that was performed with operators and others within the production.
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| 4. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
-
Implementation of Dynamic Simulation at Anglo Platinum
- 2014
-
Ingår i: 9th International Comminution Symposium 2014.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The dynamics of process operation can be overlooked in design; often with considerable loss of throughput resulting from dynamic fluctuation and mismatch of units across a circuit. As a consequence, higher demand is on design of different control strategies. Designing a circuit with consideration of the implications an operation and control strategies have on the process is essential.The aim of this paper is to describe the modelling work done for this application and give an overview of the implementation of dynamic simulation platform at Anglo Platinum to support future debugging and tuning of the Advanced Process Control for a planned expansion. This paper builds on previous dynamic modelling work done at the Mogalakwena North Concentrator. The work is focused on system identification and the implementation of the Advanced Process Control algorithm in the dynamic plant model. The dynamic model of the plant was connected to the Advanced Process Control system and the response of the model validated against the behaviour of the plant.
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| 5. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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Modelling Dynamic Behaviour of Storage Bins for Material Handling in Dynamic Simulations
- 2012
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Ingår i: XXVI International Mineral Processing Congress (IMPC 2012: Innovative Processing for Sustainable Growth; New Delhi; India; 24 September 2012 through 28 September 2012). - 9788190171434 ; , s. 258-267
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Material handling is an essential part of the aggregate and mining industries. Mixing and blending of granular material can affect the grading and particle size distribution of the material leaving the system. Segregation and variability can cause problems in the downstream process while insufficient capacity will disturb upstream processes.Process plants utilize surge bins for handling recycle streams of material and act as a buffer for the process. The flow through the surge bin is usually controlled by a simple PID controller or PID controller in combinations with a plant-wide controller. Even though the surge bins play an important role of smoothening out the plant and creating a steady operating condition are they seldom included in plant simulations. This can lead to a number of problems in the form of decreased plant capacity, plant lockdown, and even operation units malfunctioning. The main objective of this study is to investigate the dynamic behavior in surge bins and develop a model more suitable for representing this behavior, which can occur during operation, for dynamic simulations. The proposed model adopts vertical layers which allow for flows between segments depending on the level of neighboring segments. This enables both the representing of segregation within the system and gives an indication on the effects from different inlet- and outlet placements. The proposed model was developed in Matlab/Simulink and validated against an actual bin with the total capacity of 700 m3 in platinum ore application. With the new bin model significantly higher fidelity and more accurate dynamic simulation results were achieved.
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| 6. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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Modelling & dynamic simulation of gradual performance deterioration of a crushing circuit - including time dependence and wear
- 2012
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Ingår i: Minerals Engineering. - : Elsevier BV. - 0892-6875. ; 33, s. 13-19
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The use of steady-state models in process simulation is a well-established method in many process industries. Designing a large crushing plant by relying on steady-state simulations alone will not generally provide the full picture of possible operational performance. The dynamics and variation between equipment and stochastic events can significantly reduce predicted plant performance. In order to dynamically simulate the crushing circuit, models for process equipment need to be further developed.The purpose of this paper is to create a wear function for an existing Particle Size Distribution model (i.e., a Swebrec-function) with data obtained from a real crusher operating at gradually increasing closed side settings. This is done to create an accurate and updated model of the crusher in which the transient consequences of wear are captured. The Swebrec-function and correlation model were implemented into simulation software with simulated events; this simulation was validated with actual process readings. Improved simulations were then attained with the developed functions.
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| 7. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
-
Modelling & Simulation of Dynamic Crushing Plant Behaviour with MATLAB-Simulink
- 2013
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Ingår i: Minerals Engineering. - : Elsevier BV. - 0892-6875. ; 43-44:Special Issue: SI, s. 112-120
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Every process is subjected to changes in performance and efficiency over time. These dynamics can originate upstream and be inherent through the process or occur anywhere in the downstream process. Traditional plant simulations are performed with steady-state simulation, which are limited to give the performance in an ideal situation. However, plant performance usually tends to deviate away from the predicted plant performance. These dynamics are usually consequences of an altered state of the plant due to factors such as natural variation, unmatched, inappropriate or degrading equipment performance and/or stochastic events. This paper presents a novel approach for simulating dynamic plant behavior and evaluating effects from process modification through dynamic simulations with MATLAB/Simulink. An example of an existing crushing circuit is used to illustrate the functionality and the advantage of using a dynamic simulator. The results and knowledge gained from the simulation can provide a base for optimizing a robust production output in the form optimal utilization, energy efficiency or higher product quality.
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| 8. |
- Asbjörnsson, Gauti, 1985, et al.
(författare)
-
Modelling & Simulation of Dynamic Crushing Plant Behaviour with MATLAB-Simulink
- 2012
-
Ingår i: 8th International Comminution Symposium.
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Every process is subjected to changes in performance and efficiency over time. These dynamics can originate upstream and be inherent through the process or occur anywhere in the downstream process. Traditional plant simulations are performed with steady-state simulation, which are limited to give the performance in an ideal situation. However, plant performance usually tends to deviate away from the predicted plant performance. These dynamics are usually consequences of an altered state of the plant due to factors such as natural variation, unmatched, inappropriate or degrading equipment performance and/or stochastic events. This paper presents a novel approach for simulating dynamic plant behavior and evaluating effects from process modification through dynamic simulations with MATLAB/Simulink. An example of an existing crushing circuit is used to illustrate the functionality and the advantage of using a dynamic simulator. The results and knowledge gained from the simulation can provide a base for optimizing a robust production output in the form optimal utilization, energy efficiency or higher product quality.
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| 9. |
- Evertsson, Magnus, 1967, et al.
(författare)
-
Control systems for improvement of cone crusher yield and operation
- 2014
-
Ingår i: Proceedings of Comminution '14.
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Gyratory and cone crushers are regaining interest and are becoming more frequently used in order to create more energy efficient comminution circuits. A typical example is found in coarse comminution circuits were HPGRs are used as a first milling stage. In this case the preparation of a suitable feed with a well-defined width of the particle size distribution and a controlled top size are of high importance. In turn, this emphasizes the importance of a stable and controlled operation of the preceding crushing stages. Control systems for cone and gyratory crushers were first introduced during the early 60ths. The common opinion is that if these systems are able to compensate for the wear of the crushing liners the production yield can be increased with 20-25%. Over the years these types of systems have been widely used but the theory behind the principles have not been thoroughly scientifically scrutinized and presented. Of special interest is the capability to protect the crushers from long term overloading commonly defined as fatigue.With developments in electronics and plant control the crusher control systems have become more refined over the years. Though, there are sometimes conflicting interests in the control strategies between process requirements and crusher protection. In the paper an overview of the challenges, opportunities and existing control systems for cone and gyratory crushers is presented. A requirement specification for a system that is possible to fully integrate into modern plant control systems is outlined.
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| 10. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Implementing Real-time Optimization on a secondary Cone Crusher for Iron Ore Production, part 1
- 2013
-
Ingår i: Preprints Conference in Minerals Engineering, Luleå, 5-6 February 2013. ; , s. 71-80
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Cone crushers are often used as an intermediate comminution step in the mining industry. Real-time feedback data on the product streams can be obtained by applying mass-flow sensors to the process. Systems used for controlling the Closed Side Setting (CSS) on cone crushers are widely used to compensate for wear of the manganese crushing liners and to protect the machines from overloads. With a frequency converter also the eccentric speed in a cone crusher can be adjusted in real-time in addition to the CSS. The eccentric speed affects the dynamic interaction between the rock material and the crusher liners. The adjustment of these two online parameters in real time can result in an increased potential for production yield; however, a nontrivial optimization problem with a large solution space also arises. As the feed material also varies, and the wear is highly evident, the optimal setting for the parameters varies in time. In this paper we report on the preparation of a secondary cone crusher for real-time optimization. The cone crusher, a Sandvik CH680, has got a frequency converter installed and the temperature in the crusher is measured in order to ensure that the crusher as a mechanical machine is working under good operating conditions. The conveyor belts around the crusher have all been equipped with mass-flow meters. Thus the different product yields from the crushing plant can be monitored continuously. The results of the electrical and instrumental installations are that both the CSS and now also the eccentric speed can be operated and monitored in real time without interrupting the process at one of LKAB Malmbergets secondary cone crushers. The first guiding tests indicate a more beneficial operating point, where a higher power consumption can be achieved in the crusher without increasing the pressure as much. The results of the capacities, both the crusher and the crushing stage, indicate the same direction. There are operating points which are more beneficial than others, and it is not the nominal one that is the best. The range of the change in capacity of the circuit is -6.1% to +2.3% from the nominal point.
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| 11. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Implementing Real-Time Optimization on a secondary Cone Crusher for Iron ore production, part 2
- 2014
-
Ingår i: Preprints Conference in Minerals Engineering, Luleå, 4-5 February 2014. ; , s. 45-56
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Cone crushers are often used as an intermediate comminution step in the mining industry. Real-time feedback data on the product streams can be obtained by applying mass-flow sensors to the process. With a frequency converter also the eccentric speed in a cone crusher can be adjusted in real-time in addition to the CSS. The adjustment of these two online parameters in real time results in an increased potential for production yield; however, a nontrivial optimization problem with a large solution space also arises. As the feed material also varies, and the wear is highly evident, the optimal setting for the parameters varies in time. In this paper a secondary cone crusher in an iron ore application is equipped for real-time optimization with both mass flow meters, connection to plant SCADA, a CSS control system and a frequency converter. The objective is to optimize the feed to the downstream mills in real-time. The guiding tests indicated a more beneficial operating point, where higher power consumption could be achieved in the crusher without increasing the pressure as much. There are operating points which are more beneficial than others, and it is not the nominal one (factory setting) that is the best. The result from a full sampling survey tell that the production of particles smaller than 1 mm can be increased with 17.5%.
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| 12. |
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| 13. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Real-time algorithm for cone crusher control with two variables
- 2011
-
Ingår i: Minerals Engineering. - : Elsevier BV. - 0892-6875. ; 24:9, s. 987-994
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Cone crushers are used in the mineral, mining, and aggregate industry for fragmentation of rock materials, minerals and ores. Systems used for controlling the Closed Side Setting (CSS) on cone crushers, and thereby the size reduction, are widely used to compensate for wear of the manganese crushing liners and to protect the machines from overloads. With a frequency converter also the eccentric speed in a cone crusher can be adjusted in real-time in addition to the CSS. The eccentric speed affects the dynamic interaction between the rock material and the crusher liners. Especially the number of compressions the material is exposed to is affected and also the local compression of the rock material is affected, thus the particle-size distribution of the product. Eccentric speed also affects crusher capacity. Real-time feedback data on the sellable product streams can be obtained by applying mass-flow sensors to the process. The adjustment of these two online parameters in real-time can result in an increased potential for production yield; however, a nontrivial optimization problem with a large solution space also arises. As the feed material also varies, the optimal setting for the parameters varies in time.Herein, we report the development of a monitoring and control system including a two variable online algorithm for the selection of the setpoint for eccentric speed with respect to the current CSS. The different product yields from the crushing plant were monitored by mass-flow meters and continuously evaluated by a fitness function. A model for the outcome of the crushing stage, with the two parameters eccentric speed and CSS, was fitted mathematically to the measurement data. However, since the process varies continuously, due to the wear of crushers and screens and feed material variations, the performance landscape is also continuously varying. Therefore, an Evolutionary Operation (EVOP) approach was adopted, wherein the variations are instead used to continuously find an operating point closest to the optimal.The developed algorithm was tested and evolved at a crushing plant for aggregates that produces around 400,000 tonnes aggregates per year. The algorithm was implemented in a computer that communicated with the frequency converter and retrieved data from ten mass-flow meters in the process. The operator was able to interact and supervise the system through a Human Machine Interface (HMI). The result is an algorithm that can determine the position and direction of a dynamic speed control to continuously improve the process-operation point. The magnitude of the improvement potential compared to a fixed speed operation is from 5% to 20%.
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| 14. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Real-time Optimization of a speed controlled Cone Crusher in an Iron Ore application
- 2014
-
Ingår i: Proceedings of Comminution '14.
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Cone crushers are often used as an intermediate comminution step in the mining industry. Real-time feedback data on the product streams can be obtained by applying mass-flow sensors to the process. With a frequency converter also the eccentric speed in a cone crusher can be adjusted in real-time in addition to the CSS. The adjustment of these two online parameters in real time results in an increased potential for production yield; however, a nontrivial optimization problem with a large solution space also arises. As the feed material also varies, and the wear is highly evident, the optimal setting for the parameters varies in time. In this paper a secondary cone crusher in an iron ore application is equipped for real-time optimization with both mass flow meters, connection to plant SCADA, a CSS control system and a frequency converter. The objective is to optimize the feed to the downstream mills in real-time. The guiding tests indicated a more beneficial operating point, where higher power consumption could be achieved in the crusher without increasing the pressure as much. There are operating points which are more beneficial than others, and it is not the nominal one (factory setting) that is the best. In this paper the result from a survey together with a fully automated real-time algorithm is presented. The results from a full sampling survey tell that the production of particles smaller than 1 mm can be increased with 17.5%. A fully automated algorithm is currently being tested.
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| 15. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980
(författare)
-
Real-Time Optimization of Cone Crushers
- 2010
-
Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Cone crushers are used in the mineral, mining, and aggregate industry for fragmentation and production of rock materials. Cone crusher control systems are widely used for machine protection, wear compensation and, to some extent, increasing production. These systems ordinarily focus on the crusher and not the yield of production process.In this thesis real-time optimization is explored to the control of eccentric speed and on-line CSS adjustment based on information from the process. The objective is to develop theories, models, software and hardware that enable real-time optimization of a single crushing and screening stage. The main hypothesis is that fixed parameters can never be optimal over time because many things in the process vary continuously. The eccentric speed in a cone crusher determines the number of times a material is compressed and thus the particle size distribution of the product. The speed of the crusher is usually fixed since speed change by changing pulleys is a labor intensive activity. By applying a frequency converter to the crusher motor power supply, it is possible to continuously adjust the eccentric speed. The cost for frequency converters has decreased significantly over the last decade. By applying mass-flow sensors to the process, e.g. conveyor-belt scales, the crusher result can be monitored and the result can be fed back to an operator or a computer. To analyze data from the process and automatically calculate the appropriate value for the Closed Side Setting (CSS) and eccentric speed, algorithms have been developed. The goal for the algorithms is to maximize the product yield in a given moment. The algorithms are loaded into computer systems that can communicate with sensors and crushers. The developed algorithms are tested and evolved at full-scale aggregate crushing plants. Crushing stage performance increased 3.5% in terms of production yield compared to a fixed CSS when the algorithm was implemented in addition to the existing control system. The algorithm automatically compensates for changes in the feed material and also decreases the need for calibration of the CSS. The crushing stages where the speed algorithm were tested increased their performance by between 4.2% and 6.9% compared to a good fixed speed. In real life however, the performance was increased by almost 20% since an inappropriate speed was selected during installation. As a bonus, on one of the test plants for the dynamic speed, the lifetime of the manganese wear parts increased 27% on the evaluated crusher, as a consequence of changed crusher dynamics.In conclusion, real-time optimization has been demonstrated to be feasible and increases the production yield with significantly numbers and should thus be of commercial interest to the industry.
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| 16. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Real-time Optimization of Crushing Processes using EVOP
- 2011
-
Ingår i: Preprints Conference in Minerals Engineering 2011. - 9789174392203
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Cone crushers are used in the mineral, mining, and aggregate industry. Systems used forcontrolling the Closed Side Setting (CSS) on cone crushers are widely used tocompensate for wear of the manganese crushing liners and to protect the machines fromoverloads. With a frequency converter also the eccentric speed in a cone crusher can beadjusted in real-time in addition to the CSS. The eccentric speed affects the dynamicinteraction between the rock material and the crusher liners. Real-time feedback data onthe sellable product streams can be obtained by applying mass-flow sensors to theprocess. The adjustment of these two online parameters in real time can result in anincreased potential for production yield; however, a nontrivial optimization problemwith a large solution space also arises. As the feed material also varies, the optimalsetting for the parameters varies in time.Herein, we report the development of a monitoring and control system. The differentproduct yields from the crushing plant were monitored by mass-flow meters andcontinuously evaluated by a fitness function. Since the process varies continuously, dueto the wear of crushers and screens and feed-material variations, the performancelandscape is also continuously varying. Therefore, an Evolutionary Operation (EVOP)approach was adopted, wherein the variations are instead used to continuously find anoperating point closest to the optimal.The developed algorithm was tested and evolved at a crushing plant for aggregates thatproduces around 400 kton aggregates per year. The result is an algorithm that candetermine the position and direction of a dynamic speed control to continuouslyimprove the process-operation point. The magnitude of the improvement potentialcompared to a fixed-speed operation is from 5 to 20%.
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| 17. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Tuning of real-time algorithm for crushing plants using a dynamic crushing plant simulator
- 2012
-
Ingår i: 8th International Comminution Symposium 2012.
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Real-time algorithms have earlier been successfully implemented in crushing plants for the selection of set-points. The algorithms build on principle models of how the on-line adjustable parameters affect the process. The dynamics in a crushing plant are usually consequences of altered states of the plant due to factors such as natural variation of the processed material, degrading equipment performance and more or less stochastic discrete events. Although the real-time algorithms are carefully designed in order to optimize the process, they are not fine-tuned themselves. In this paper a method for tuning real-time algorithms using a dynamic crushing plant simulator is presented. With the plant realistically modeled in a dynamic simulator the constants of the real-time algorithm can be selected before the algorithm is implemented in a real plant. Thus the algorithm can optimize the plant better and quicker. The method is demonstrated with a simulation of a real crushing plant.
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| 18. |
- Hulthén, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Two Variable Real-Time Algorithm for Cone Crusher Control
- 2010
-
Ingår i: XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS IMPC 2010. - 9781921522284 ; , s. 813-819
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Cone crushers are used in the mineral, mining, and aggregate industry for fragmentation of rockmaterials. Control systems for cone crusher setting (CSS) are widely used to compensate for wearand to protect the crusher. With a frequency converter the eccentric speed in a cone crusher canbe adjusted in real-time. The eccentric speed of the main shaft affects the number of compressionsthe material is exposed to and thus the capacity and the particle size distribution of the product. Byapplying mass-fl ow sensors to the process, a feedback of the different product yields is obtained inevery moment.In this paper, a model and an algorithm are presented. The algorithm takes the incrementallyincreasing CSS into account and compensates for this with a successively changing eccentric speed.In order to implement the algorithm, a monitoring and control system is developed, including theonline algorithm for selection eccentric speed. The different product fl ows from the crushing plantare continuously monitored by mass fl ow meters. The fi tness function is set by the plant managementdepending on production targets and market situation. An earlier developed Finite State Machine(FSM) algorithm is also implemented and evaluated in the system.The developed algorithm has been validated and verifi ed at a crushing plant for aggregates with aproduction of around 400 kton a year. The new algorithm is shown to increase the crushing stagethroughput with 6.9 per cent. The FSM algorithm, on the other hand, increases the throughput with5.3 per cent, which is a confi rmation of the magnitude of its benefi ts demonstrated in an earlierpaper.
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