| 1. |
- Bell, David, et al.
(author)
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Forest restoration to attract a putative umbrella species, the white-backed woodpecker, benefited saproxylic beetles
- 2015
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In: Ecosphere. - 2150-8925 .- 2150-8925. ; 6:12
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Umbrella species are often spatially demanding and have limited ability to adapt to environmental changes induced by human land-use. This makes them vulnerable to human encroachment. In Sweden, broadleaved trees are disadvantaged by forestry, and commercially managed forests are often deprived of dead wood. This has led to a situation where previously widespread top predators in saproxylic food webs, such as the white-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos), have become species of conservation concern. The white-backed woodpecker is generally considered an umbrella species, and it has been linked to forests with large volumes of dead wood from broadleaved trees. In recent years, forest stands have been restored for the white-backed woodpecker, but post-treatment evaluations have rarely included other species that also occur in broad-leaved forests (co-occurring species). Many co-occurring species are saproxylic beetles. In this study, we collected saproxylic beetles and environmental data in restored and commercially managed forests to evaluate if habitat restoration for the white-backed woodpecker also benefited other species with similar habitat associations. We found that volumes of coarse woody debris were higher in restored than in commercially managed forests, and that a majority of man-made snags and downed logs were created from birch trees (Betula spp.). Most spruce trees (Picea abies) were extracted during forest restoration, and this opened up the forest canopy, and created stands dominated by broadleaved trees. Many saproxylic beetles were more common in restored forests, and there were significant differences in species composition between treatments. These differences were largely explained by species traits. Effects of sun-exposure were particularly important, but many beneficiary species were also linked to dead wood from broadleaved trees. Red-listed saproxylic beetles showed a similar pattern with more species and individuals in restored sites. The white-backed woodpecker is still critically endangered in Sweden, but important prey species are already responding to forest restoration at the stand level. We recognize that landscape-level improvements will be required to bring the white-backed woodpecker back, but also that the umbrella species concept can provide a useful framework for successful forest restoration as many co-occurring saproxylic beetle species seemingly benefitted from restoration for the white-backed woodpecker.
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| 2. |
- Johansson, Therese, et al.
(author)
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Long-term effects of clear-cutting on epigaeic beetle assemblages in boreal forests
- 2016
-
In: Forest Ecology and Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0378-1127 .- 1872-7042. ; 359, s. 65-73
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Management of boreal forests for timber production has caused changes in forest structures and disturbance regimes, which have influenced a wide range of organisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate how composition of epigaeic (ground-living) beetle assemblages is influenced by stand age and management history in a heavily managed boreal forest landscape. We compared the epigaeic assemblages among stands of three ages: (1) young (8-25 years) and (2) middle-aged (40-58 years) stands regrown after clear-cutting, and mature stands (80-130 years) that had been selectively cut historically but never clear felled. We sampled epigaeic beetles in each of 42 stands, using 10 pitfall traps during seven summer weeks. More than 9000 specimens were collected and identified. The assemblages in young stands differed from those in middle-aged and mature stands, both for the Staphylinidae (rove beetles) and all beetle families combined. Carabidae (ground beetles) composition differed between young and middle aged stands only, and assemblages of Curculionidae (weevils, bark beetles and allies) differed between young and mature stands only. Assemblages of Leiodidae (round fungus beetles) had similar composition in all three stand types. Considering all families, young stands generally harbored fewer species and lower abundances compared with middle aged and mature stands. However, the Leiodidae had similar species richness in all three stand types. The lack of differences in assemblage composition, species richness and abundance between middle aged and mature stands suggests that epigaeic beetle assemblages recolonize following clear-felling. However, our collections included large numbers of unique and usually rare species in mature stands, indicating that old forest is important for the conservation of epigaeic beetles. Furthermore, the lower abundance of these beetles in young stands indicates that an increasing proportion of young stands on managed landscapes will reduce the overall abundances of epigaeic beetle species, with potentially negative impacts on recolonization.
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| 3. |
- Kärvemo, Simon, et al.
(author)
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Forest restoration as a double-edged sword: the conflict between biodiversity conservation and pest control
- 2017
-
In: Journal of Applied Ecology. - : Wiley. - 0021-8901 .- 1365-2664. ; 54, s. 1658-1668
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- 1. Forestry has markedly changed a large proportion of the world's boreal forests, often with negative effects on biodiversity. As a result, forest restoration is increasingly implemented to counteract the negative effects. However, restoration measures aimed at mimicking natural disturbance regimes could simultaneously increase the risk of unwanted negative effects, such as damage by forest pest species. This study compares the effect of two restoration methods (prescribed burning and gap-cutting), on both biodiversity conservation and pest control, to provide a basis for solutions to this potential conflict.2. Bark beetles are ideal for studying this conflict, as this group is both species-rich and contains notorious pest species. We conducted a unique, large-scale field experiment in which we compared the effect of two different restoration methods on the abundance, species richness and assemblage composition of bark beetles. In addition, we estimated uncontrolled tree mortality by the number of trees that died post-restoration.3. Beetles were divided in two groups, primary and secondary, the former with an ability to kill growing trees. Bark beetle diversity did not differ between treatment groups prior to restoration. However, after restoration, assemblage composition and primary bark beetle abundance differed between the treatments. Furthermore, species richness was higher in burned and gap-cut stands compared to reference stands4. The number of trees that died post-restoration was highest on burned sites, whereas no difference was found between gap-cut and reference stands. The number of dead trees was correlated with the number of primary beetles.5. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate the potential for a conflict between forest restoration for biodiversity conservation and the potential risk for tree mortality caused by forest pests. This is likely to become a problem in many boreal forests; however, our results suggest that this conflict can be moderated by the choice of restoration method. The restoration method gap-cutting had a similar positive impact on bark beetle species richness as compared to the burning method, but did not as burning, increase tree mortality. Thus, in areas where there is an apparent risk for pest outbreaks, our data suggest that gap-cutting should be the chosen method to avoid an unwanted increase in tree mortality at the stand level.
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| 4. |
- Eggers, Sönke, et al.
(author)
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Ecological restoration in boreal forest modifies the structure of bird assemblages
- 2017
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In: Forest Ecology and Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0378-1127 .- 1872-7042. ; 401, s. 75-88
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Ecological restoration is increasingly recognised as a useful tool for biodiversity conservation in boreal forests. Most restoration methods in this environment aim to emulate natural disturbances, and thereby promote the development of key ecological structures. However, research about forest ecosystem restoration is still in its infancy and the responses of many boreal species groups remain to be described. We established a large-scale field experiment to evaluate the short-term effects of two restoration treatments - prescribed burning and gap cutting involving the creation of dead wood - on breeding bird assemblages in boreal Sweden. We censused breeding birds using territory mapping during two years in forest stands subjected to the two restoration treatments, in untreated controls and in old-growth references (nature reserves) (n = 10 per treatment). Averaged over the two census years, we found 1145 territories of 36 bird species. Total bird species richness and abundance did not differ among treatments. However, prescribed burning led to clear changes in the structure of the bird assemblages. When dividing species according to four functional categorizations (migration, foraging, nesting and successional stage), we found that the abundance of long-distance migrants, ground breeders, strong cavity excavators and species preferring early-successional habitat was higher in burned stands than in untreated controls and gap-cut stands, as was the species richness of bark feeders and strong cavity excavators. In contrast, abundance of off-ground breeders and species richness of crown feeders were lower following prescribed burning than in the controls. The gap cutting treatment did not have any significant effects on the bird assemblages. Ecological restoration through prescribed burning can be a useful tool for the conservation of boreal forest birds, including the ecologically important strong cavity excavators (i.e. woodpeckers (Picidae)). Forest managers should therefore be encouraged to use prescribed burning as a restoration tool to quickly provide habitat for bird species adapted to natural disturbances in boreal forest. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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| 5. |
- Gibb, Heloise, et al.
(author)
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Foraging loads of red wood ants: Formica aquilonia (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in relation to tree characteristics and stand age
- 2016
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In: PeerJ. - : PeerJ. - 2167-8359. ; 4
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Back ground. Foraging efficiency is critical in determining the success of organisms and may be affected by a range of factors, including resource distance and quality. For social insects such as ants, outcomes must be considered at the level of both the individual and the colony. It is important to understand whether anthropogenic disturbances, such as forestry, affect foraging loads, independent of effects on the quality and distribution of resources. We asked if ants harvest greater loads from more distant and higher quality resources, how individual efforts scale to the colony level, and whether worker loads are affected by stand age.Methods. First, we performed a fine-scale study examining the effect of distance and resource quality (tree diameter and species) on harvesting of honeydew by red wood ants, Formica aquilonia, in terms of crop load per worker ant and numbers of workers walking up and down each tree (ant activity) (study 1). Second, we modelled what the combination of load and worker number responses meant for colony-level foraging loads. Third, at a larger scale, we asked whether the relationship between worker load and resource quality and distance depended on stand age (study 2).Results. Study 1 revealed that seventy percent of ants descending trees carried honeydew, and the percentage of workers that were honeydew harvesters was not related to tree species or diameter, but increased weakly with distance. Distance positively affected load mass in both studies 1 and 2, while diameter had weak negative effects on load. Relationships between load and distance and diameter did not differ among stands of different ages. Our model showed that colony-level loads declined much more rapidly with distance for small diameter than large diameter trees.Discussion. We suggest that a negative relationship between diameter and honeydew load detected in study 1 might be a result of crowding on large diameter trees close to nests, while the increase in honeydew load with distance may result from resource depletion close to nests. At the colony level, our model suggests that very little honeydew was harvested from more distant trees if they were small, but that more distant larger trees continued to contribute substantially to colony harvest. Although forestry alters the activity and foraging success of red wood ants, study 2 showed that it does not alter the fundamental rules determining the allocation of foraging effort.
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| 6. |
- Gibb, Heloise, et al.
(author)
-
Testing top-down and bottom-up effects on arid zone beetle assemblages following mammal reintroduction
- 2018
-
In: Austral Ecology. - : Wiley. - 1442-9985 .- 1442-9993. ; 43, s. 288-300
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Species extinctions and declines are occurring globally and commonly have cascading effects on ecosystems. In Australia, mammal extinctions have been extensive, particularly in arid areas, where precipitation drives ecosystems. Many ecologically extinct mammals feed on soil-dwelling insects. However, how this top-down pressure affected their prey and how this contrasts with the bottom-up impacts of fluctuating precipitation remains unclear. We constructed a long-term exclusion experiment in a multi-species mammal reintroduction zone in semi-arid Australia to test how top-down (reintroduced mammals) and bottom-up (precipitation) factors affect root-feeding chafer beetles (Coleoptera: Melolonthinae). We used emergence traps in ten replicate 20 x 20 m plots of control, exclusion and procedural control treatments to trap chafers biannually from 2009 to 2015. Annual precipitation during this period varied from 173 to 481 mm. Mammal exclusion did not affect chafers, indicating that top-down regulation was not important. Instead, chafer abundance, species density and biomass increased with precipitation. Chafer body size and assemblage composition were best predicted by sampling year, suggesting that random drift determined species abundances. Increased resource availability therefore favoured all species similarly. We thus found no evidence that mammal predation alters chafer populations and conclude that they may be driven primarily by bottom-up processes. Further research should determine if the cascading effects of species loss are less important for herbivores generally than for higher level trophic groups and the role of ecosystem stability in mediating these patterns.
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| 7. |
- Hjältén, Joakim, et al.
(author)
-
Biodiversity benefits for saproxylic beetles with uneven-aged silviculture
- 2017
-
In: Forest Ecology and Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0378-1127 .- 1872-7042. ; 402, s. 37-50
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Large scale use of even-aged silviculture (clear-cutting) commencing in the mid-20th century has had negative impacts on forest biodiversity. As a consequence, uneven-aged silviculture is currently being considered to help meet the ecological and social criteria required for sustainable forest management. Uneven-aged silviculture (e.g. selective felling) involves selective removal of some older trees in a stand which may to some extent mimics natural small scale stand dynamics and thus potentially benefit species associated with old forests. Here we test whether selective felling benefits beetle biodiversity by producing beetle assemblages that better resemble those of old growth stands than those found in uncut production stands. We conducted a field study in northern Sweden, comparing beetles assemblages collected with window traps in three spruce dominated stand types: (1) Stands recently (on average 7 years prior to the study) subjected to selective felling (Selective felling), (2) mature uneven-aged stands without recent history of management, resembling selective felling stands prior to management (Uncut), and (3) old-growth stands with high conservation values (Old growth). As predicted, we found that assemblage composition was similar in selective felling and old growth stands, and that assemblages of cambivores and obligate saproxylics (marginally significant) differed between these two stand types and uncut stands. The differences were largely explained by a higher abundance of saproxylic species presumably associated with old growth conditions and large volumes of deadwood. Thus, although overall assemblage composition did not differ between stand types, part of the beetle community seemingly benefited from selective felling. We therefore recommend that selective felling is considered as an alternative to clear-felling to maintain biodiversity values. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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| 8. |
- Hjältén, Joakim, et al.
(author)
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Forest restoration by burning and gap cutting of voluntary set-asides yield distinct immediate effects on saproxylic beetles
- 2017
-
In: Biodiversity and Conservation. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0960-3115 .- 1572-9710. ; 26:7, s. 1623-1640
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Today, the importance of restoring natural forest disturbance regimes and habitat structures for biodiversity is widely recognized. We evaluated the immediate effects of two restoration methods on wood-inhabiting (saproxylic) beetles in boreal forest voluntary set-asides. We used a before-after control-impact experimental set-up in 15 set-asides; each assigned to one of three treatments: (1) restoration burning, (2) gap cutting and (3) no-treatment reference stands. Before treatment, abundance, species richness and assemblage composition of trapped beetles did not differ significantly among treatments. Burning resulted in a significant change in assemblage composition and increased species richness and abundance compared to reference stands. As predicted, saproxylic species known to be fire favoured increased dramatically after burning. The immediate response shows that, initially, fire favoured species are attracted from the surrounding landscape and not produced on site. Gap cutting increased the abundance of cambium consumers but had no significant effect on total species richness or assemblage composition of saproxylic beetles. The stronger effect of burning compared to gap cutting on saproxylic assemblages is probably due to the very specific conditions created by fires that attracts many disturbance-dependent species, but that at the same time disfavour some disturbance-sensitive species. By contrast, gap cutting maintained assemblage composition, increased abundances and is likely to increase species richness in the years to follow, due to elevated level of dead wood. The restoration methods applied in this study may prove particularly useful, partly because of positive effect on saproxylic beetles, but also due to the cost-efficiency of the measures; the voluntary set-asides were already established and the restoration costs fully covered by revenue from the extracted timber.
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| 9. |
- Hjältén, Joakim, et al.
(author)
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Saproxylic Insects and Fire
- 2018
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In: Saproxylic Insects : Diversity, Ecology and Conservation. - Cham : Springer International Publishing. - 9783319759364 ; :1, s. 669-691
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Book chapter (peer-reviewed)
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| 10. |
- Hof, Anouschka, et al.
(author)
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Simulating Long-Term Effects of Bioenergy Extraction on Dead Wood Availability at a Landscape Scale in Sweden
- 2018
-
In: Forests. - : MDPI AG. - 1999-4907. ; 9
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Wood bioenergy may decrease the reliance on fossil carbon and mitigate anticipated increases in temperature. However, increased use of wood bioenergy may have large impacts on forest biodiversity primarily through the loss of dead wood habitats. We evaluated both the large-scale and long-term effects of different bioenergy extraction scenarios on the availability of dead wood and the suitability of the resulting habitat for saproxylic species, using a spatially explicit forest landscape simulation framework applied in the Swedish boreal forest. We demonstrate that bioenergy extraction scenarios, differing in the level of removal of biomass, can have significant effects on dead wood volumes. Although all of the scenarios led to decreasing levels of dead wood, the scenario aimed at species conservation led to highest volumes of dead wood (about 10 m(3) ha(-1)) and highest connectivity of dead wood patches (mean proximity index of 78), whilst the scenario aimed at reaching zero fossil fuel targets led to the lowest levels (about 8 m(3) ha(-1)) and least connectivity (mean proximity index of 7). Our simulations stress that further exploitation of dead wood from sites where volumes are already below suggested habitat thresholds for saproxylic species will very likely have further negative effects on dead wood dependent species.
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| 11. |
- Joelsson, Klara, et al.
(author)
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Uneven-aged silviculture can reduce negative effects of forest management on beetles
- 2017
-
In: Forest Ecology and Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0378-1127 .- 1872-7042. ; 391, s. 436-445
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Decline in biodiversity have increased the interest in alternative forest management approaches. Uneven-aged silviculture has been proposed as a mean to maintain continuity of forest canopy cover, mimic small-scale disturbances and provide a stratified forest structure similar to that of old-growth forests and therefore better maintain species associated with unmanaged forest. We used a large-scale chronosequence study spanning 50 years to study beetle diversity in uneven-aged silviculture compared with both short-term impacts and the longer-term legacy of even-aged silviculture. We compared: (1) even-aged recently clear-felled stand, (2) even-aged recently thinned stand, (3) uneven-aged stands subjected to selective felling with (4) uneven-aged reference stands to evaluate whether abundance, species richness and composition of beetles (Coleoptera) were affected differently by even-aged than by uneven-aged management. We collected 15,147 beetles from 461 species using flight interception traps in 30 stands. Beetle composition was maintained in uneven-aged managed stands; composition did not differ from unmanaged reference stands, the exception being cambium consumers. Both even-aged silviculture treatments (clear-felling and thinning) had different beetle composition compared to the reference stands, indicating that assemblages had yet to recover even 50 years into the rotation. However, beetle composition did not differ between uneven-aged managed and thinned stands. The result supports our prediction that uneven-aged silviculture better maintains beetles assemblages associated with semi-natural mature forest than even-aged silviculture. The greater temporal continuity in selectively felled stands could benefit species dependent of mature or old growth forest since some of the needed habitat qualities are continuously available. Uneven-aged silviculture could therefore serve as an important tool for landscape planning to benefit biodiversity and thus help fulfil environmental commitments. However, uneven-aged silviculture may still alter the forest and should therefore be viewed as an alternative to even-aged silviculture, rather than to set-asides.
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| 12. |
- Lindberg, Eva, et al.
(author)
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Can Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) and Forest Estimates Derived from Satellite Images Be Used to Predict Abundance and Species Richness of Birds and Beetles in Boreal Forest?
- 2015
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In: Remote Sensing. - : MDPI AG. - 2072-4292. ; 7, s. 4233-4252
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In managed landscapes, conservation planning requires effective methods to identify high-biodiversity areas. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of airborne laser scanning (ALS) and forest estimates derived from satellite images extracted at two spatial scales for predicting the stand-scale abundance and species richness of birds and beetles in a managed boreal forest landscape. Multiple regression models based on forest data from a 50-m radius (i.e., corresponding to a homogenous forest stand) had better explanatory power than those based on a 200-m radius (i.e., including also parts of adjacent stands). Bird abundance and species richness were best explained by the ALS variables "maximum vegetation height" and "vegetation cover between 0.5 and 3 m" (both positive). Flying beetle abundance and species richness, as well as epigaeic (i.e., ground-living) beetle richness were best explained by a model including the ALS variable "maximum vegetation height" (positive) and the satellite-derived variable "proportion of pine" (negative). Epigaeic beetle abundance was best explained by "maximum vegetation height" at 50 m (positive) and "stem volume" at 200 m (positive). Our results show that forest estimates derived from satellite images and ALS data provide complementary information for explaining forest biodiversity patterns. We conclude that these types of remote sensing data may provide an efficient tool for conservation planning in managed boreal landscapes.
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| 13. |
- Lindberg, Eva, et al.
(author)
-
Does detailed vegetation structure derived from airborne laser scanning (ALS) contribute to prediction of abundance and species richness of birds and beetles in boreal forest?
- 2015
-
Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- In managed landscapes, conservation planning requires effective methods to identify high-biodiversity areas. Satellite images and airborne laser scanning (ALS) can provide information about vegetation over large areas. This study evaluates the potential of detailed vegetation structure derived from ALS data for predicting the stand-scale abundance and species richness of birds and beetles in a managed boreal forest landscape. Earlier results have shown that bird abundance and species richness were best explained by the ALS variables "maximum vegetation height" and "vegetation cover between 0.5 and 3 m" (both positive), while the abundance and species richness of flying beetles as well as epigaeic (i.e., ground-living) beetles were best explained by a model including the ALS variable "maximum vegetation height" (positive) and the satellite-derived variable "proportion of pine" (negative). Now we include new explanatory variables describing the size of the tree crowns and the patchiness of the canopy derived from ALS data. The results demonstrate the level of detail in vegetation structure that can be obtained from ALS data and the importance of this information compared to other variables derived from remote sensing on a coarser scale.
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
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| 16. |
- Löfroth, Therese, et al.
(author)
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Interspecific competition and coexistence between wood ants
- 2016
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In: Wood Ant Ecology and Conservation. - 9781107261402 ; , s. 123-144
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Book chapter (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Competition among or within species has long been considered one of the most fundamental processes shaping ecological communities, affecting distributions and the evolution of species. While its importance and detectability are strongly debated (Schaffer et al. 1979; Schoener 1982; Connell 1983; Schoener 1983), its role in structuring ant assemblages has often been uncritically accepted and competition is even referred to as ‘the hallmark of ant ecology' (Hölldobler and Wilson 1991). Competition between species, i.e. interspecific competition, has been a major theme in the study of wood ants and their role in species assemblages. This chapter considers interspecific competition as it relates to wood ants, including the behavioural interactions with other ant species and mechanisms of coexistence. Theories regarding the competitive structuring of ant assemblages by wood ants through dominance hierarchies (see below) and the observational and experimental evidence for this are discussed. Factors that regulate competition from wood ants, competitive interactions with other taxa and avenues for advancing our understanding of this topic are also considered.
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| 17. |
- Löfroth, Therese, et al.
(author)
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Soil humidity, potential solar radiation and altitude affect boreal beetle assemblages in dead wood
- 2017
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In: Biological Conservation. - : Elsevier BV. - 0006-3207 .- 1873-2917. ; 209, s. 107-118
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Topographic heterogeneity causes gradients in altitude, potential solar radiation and soil humidity on a range of scales from micro- to macro-habitat These gradients are important determinants for the distribution of many organisms but have been largely neglected in studies of species associated with dead wood, a group of great conservation concern. In this study, we evaluated the effects of topography-related gradients (altitude, potential solar radiation and soil humidity) and habitat characteristics (bark cover, ground contact and dead wood volume) on saproxylic (wood-inhabiting) beetle assemblages. We sampled boreal saproxylic beetles hatching from 750 experimentally exposed spruce and birch logs in a regional scale field experiment including 10 landscapes and spanning gradients of altitude (range 85-510 m asl), potential solar radiation (based on slope and slope aspect and highest in equator-facing slopes, PADIR, range 0.24-0.71) and soil humidity (humidity index, range 2.3-3.1). The logs were placed in north Swedish forests and clear-cuts and beetles were sampled with emergence traps the 4th summer after the logs were introduced. Saproxylic assemblage composition varied considerably in response to altitude, potential solar radiation and soil humidity. The response was evident in both forests and clear-cuts and for both birch and spruce logs. Species density and abundance responses differed among trophic groups. For birch logs, fungivore species density increased significantly with increased potential solar radiation. For spruce logs, altitude affected total species density and density of cambium consumers positively and abundance of fungivores negatively, suggesting a delay in succession due to slower decomposition at higher altitudes. In addition to the topography-related gradients, ground contact and bark cover of logs as well as the availability of dead wood in the vicinity influenced the beetle assemblages. Our results clearly show that topography-related gradients affect assemblage composition of saproxylic beetles. These factors should be considered in the management of saproxylic biodiversity. To ensure the safeguarding of intact saproxylic assemblages it is important that the full range of dead wood habitats is conserved. Topographic heterogeneity may provide opportunities for landscape scale survival in response to rapid climate change but there is also a risk that some niches will disappear. Some of the negative effects of climate change could be mitigated by allocating set asides and restoration efforts in areas where gradient in altitude, solar radiation and soil humidity are particularly well developed over short distances. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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