| 2. |
- Turkenburg, Wim C, et al.
(författare)
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Renewable Energy Technologies
- 2000
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Ingår i: World energy assessment: energy and the challenge of sustainability. - 9211261260 ; , s. 219-272
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 1998 renewable energy sources supplied 56 ± 10 exajoules,or about 14 percent of world primary energy consumption. Thesupply was dominated by traditional biomass (38 ± 10 exajoules a year. Other major contributions came from large hydropower (9 exajoules a year) and from modern biomass (7 exajoules). The contribution of all other renewables — small hydropower, geothermal, wind, solar, and marineenergy — was about 2 exajoules. That means that the energy supply from new renewables was about 9 exajoules (about 2 percent of world consumption). The commercial primary energy supply from renewable sources was 27 ± 6 exajoules (nearly 7 percent of world consumption), with 16 ± 6 exajoules from biomass. Renewable energy sources can meet many times the present world energy demand, so their potential is enormous. They can enhance diversity in energy supply markets, secure long-term sustainable energy supplies, and reduce local and global atmospheric emissions. They can also provide commercially attractive options to meet specific needs for energy services (particularly in developing countries and rural areas), create new employment opportunities, and offer possibilities for local manufacturing of equipment. There are many renewable technologies. Although often commerciallyavailable, most are still at an early stage of development and not technically mature. They demand continuing research, development, and demonstration efforts. In addition, few renewable energy technologies can compete with conventional fuels on cost, except in some niche markets. But substantial cost reductions can be achieved for most renewables, closing gaps and making them more competitive. That will require further technology development and market deployment — and boosting production capacities to mass production. For the long term and under very favourable conditions, the lowest cost to produce electricity might be $0.01–0.02 a kilowatt-hour for geothermal, $0.03 a kilowatt-hour for wind and hydro, $0.04 a kilowatt-hour for solar thermal and biomass, and $0.05–0.06 a kilowatt-hour for photovoltaics and marine currents. The lowest cost to produce heat might be $0.005 a kilowatt-hour for geothermal, $0.01 a kilowatt-hour for biomass, and $0.02–0.03 a kilowatt-hour for solar thermal. The lowest cost to produce fuels might be $1.5 a gigajoule for biomass, $6–7 a gigajoule for ethanol, $7–10 a gigajoule for methanol, and $6–8 a gigajoule for hydrogen. Scenarios investigating the potential of renewables reveal that they might contribute 20–50 percent of energy supplies in the second half of the 21st century. A transition to renewables-based energy systems would have to rely on: Successful development and diffusion of renewable energy technologies that become more competitive through cost reductions from technological and organisational developments. Political will to internalise environmental costs and other externalities that permanently increase fossil fuel prices. Many countries have found ways to promote renewables. As renewable energy activities grow and require more funding, the tendency in many countries is to move away from methods that let taxpayers carry the burden of promoting renewables, towards economic and regulatory methods that let energy consumers carry the burden.
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| 3. |
- Obersteiner, M., et al.
(författare)
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Managing climate risk
- 2001
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Ingår i: Science magazine. - Washington DC : American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). - 0036-8075 .- 1095-9203. ; 294:5543, s. 786-787
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations at a safe level is a paradigm that the scientific andpolicy communities have widely adopted for addressing the problem of climate change. However, aiming to stabilize concentrations at a single target level might not be a robust strategy, given that the environment is extremely uncertain. The availability of technological options for adaptation, preventive mitigation, and backstop risk measures will be critical for limiting the risks associated with climate change. Technologies that can rapidly remove GHGs from the atmosphere will play an important role. Terrestrial sinks are limited by land requirements and saturation, and concerns about permanence limit their attractiveness. Biomass energy can be used both to produce carbon neutral energy carriers, e.g., electricity and hydrogen, and at the same time offer a permanent CO2 sink by capturing carbon from the biomass at the conversion facility and permanently storing it in geological formations. It is concluded that a system of climate risk management is practicable and necessary. Increasing deployment of sustainable bioenergy with carbon removal and sequestration, together with structural shift toward low carbon-intensive fuels, will turn out to be instrumental for such a risk-limiting regime.
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