| 1. |
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| 2. |
- Adner, Mikael, et al.
(författare)
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Regional variation in appearance of vascular contractile endothelin-B receptors following organ culture
- 1998
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - 1755-3245. ; 37:1, s. 254-262
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the appearance of contractile endothelin (ET)-B receptors following organ culture in different vascular regions. METHOD: The contractile responses of vascular smooth muscle induced by ET-1 and the selective ETB receptor agonist sarafotoxin 6c (S6c) were investigated in circular segments representing eight vascular regions in the rat (aorta, femoral artery, mesenteric artery, branch of the mesenteric artery, proximal and distal parts of the caudal artery, femoral and mesenteric veins). To allow the ETB receptor to be expressed, the segments were placed in organ culture for 1 to 5 days. Pharmacological characterisation of the ET receptors was performed in mesenteric arterial segments. All contractile responses were measured in percentage of K(+)-induced contraction. RESULTS: ET-1 induced strong concentration-dependent contractions of all fresh (not cultured) segments. S6c had negligible effects on all fresh vessels with the exception of the mesenteric vein, where a small contraction was seen. After 1 day of organ culture all tested segments, with the exception of aorta and the proximal part of the caudal artery, showed concentration-dependent contractile responses to S6c which were further augmented after 5 days of culture. The ET-1-induced responses were only slightly affected by organ culture. Contractions induced by S6c were more enhanced in small arteries and veins than in larger arteries. Furthermore, the S6c-induced response was more pronounced in the mesenteric region as compared to the hindlimb. In fresh mesenteric arterial segments FR139317 (ETA receptor antagonist) and bosentan (ETA/ETB receptor antagonist) but not IRL 2500 (ETB receptor antagonist) shifted the ET-1-induced concentration-response curve in parallel to the right. In contrast, after organ culture the S6c-induced concentration-response curves were shifted parallel to the right in the following potency order: IRL 2500 > bosentan > FR139317. CONCLUSION: During normal conditions, the ETA receptor is the dominating mediator of endothelin-induced contraction in eight different vascular regions. Furthermore, this study indicates that most of the vessels have the ability to develop contractile ETB receptors and that this plasticity differs in vascular regions.
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| 3. |
- Alabas, Oras A., et al.
(författare)
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Statistics on mortality following acute myocardial infarction in 842 897 Europeans
- 2020
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : OXFORD UNIV PRESS. - 0008-6363 .- 1755-3245. ; 116:1, s. 149-157
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aims: To compare ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and non-STEMI (NSTEMI) mortality between Sweden and the UK, adjusting for background population rates of expected death, case mix, and treatments.Methods and results: National data were collected from hospitals in Sweden [n = 73 hospitals, 180 368 patients, Swedish Web-system for Enhancement and Development of Evidence-based care in Heart disease Evaluated According to Recommended Therapies (SWEDEHEART)] and the UK [n = 247, 662 529 patients, Myocardial Ischaemia National Audit Project (MINAP)] between 2003 and 2013. There were lower rates of revascularization [STEMI (43.8% vs. 74.9%); NSTEMI (27.5% vs. 43.6%)] and pharmacotherapies at time of hospital discharge including [aspirin (82.9% vs. 90.2%) and (79.9% vs. 88.0%), beta-blockers (73.4% vs. 86.4%) and (65.3% vs. 85.1%)] in the UK compared with Sweden, respectively. Standardized net probability of death (NPD) between admission and 1 month was higher in the UK for STEMI [8.0 (95% confidence interval 7.4-8.5) vs. 6.7 (6.5-6.9)] and NSTEMI [6.8 (6.4-7.2) vs. 4.9 (4.7-5.0)]. Between 6 months and 1 year and more than 1 year, NPD remained higher in the UK for NSTEMI [2.9 (2.5-3.3) vs. 2.3 (2.2-2.5)] and [21.4 (20.0-22.8) vs. 18.3 (17.6-19.0)], but was similar for STEMI [0.7 (0.4-1.0) vs. 0.9 (0.7-1.0)] and [8.4 (6.7-10.1) vs. 8.3 (7.5-9.1)].Conclusion: Short-term mortality following STEMI and NSTEMI was higher in the UK compared with Sweden. Mid- and longer-term mortality remained higher in the UK for NSTEMI but was similar for STEMI. Differences in mortality may be due to differential use of guideline-indicated treatments.
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| 4. |
- Alexander, Y, et al.
(författare)
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Endothelial function in cardiovascular medicine: a consensus paper of the European Society of Cardiology Working Groups on Atherosclerosis and Vascular Biology, Aorta and Peripheral Vascular Diseases, Coronary Pathophysiology and Microcirculation, and Thrombosis
- 2021
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 117:1, s. 29-42
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Endothelial cells (ECs) are sentinels of cardiovascular health. Their function is reduced by the presence of cardiovascular risk factors, and is regained once pathological stimuli are removed. In this European Society for Cardiology Position Paper, we describe endothelial dysfunction as a spectrum of phenotypic states and advocate further studies to determine the role of EC subtypes in cardiovascular disease. We conclude that there is no single ideal method for measurement of endothelial function. Techniques to measure coronary epicardial and micro-vascular function are well established but they are invasive, time-consuming, and expensive. Flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) of the brachial arteries provides a non-invasive alternative but is technically challenging and requires extensive training and standardization. We, therefore, propose that a consensus methodology for FMD is universally adopted to minimize technical variation between studies, and that reference FMD values are established for different populations of healthy individuals and patient groups. Newer techniques to measure endothelial function that are relatively easy to perform, such as finger plethysmography and the retinal flicker test, have the potential for increased clinical use provided a consensus is achieved on the measurement protocol used. We recommend further clinical studies to establish reference values for these techniques and to assess their ability to improve cardiovascular risk stratification. We advocate future studies to determine whether integration of endothelial function measurements with patient-specific epigenetic data and other biomarkers can enhance the stratification of patients for differential diagnosis, disease progression, and responses to therapy.
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| 5. |
- Andersson, Linda, 1973, et al.
(författare)
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Rip2 modifies VEGF-induced signalling and vascular permeability in myocardial ischemia
- 2015
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 0008-6363 .- 1755-3245. ; 107:4, s. 478-486
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In myocardial ischemia, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induces permeability by activating a signalling pathway that includes VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2), resulting in increased oedema and inflammation and thereby expanding the area of tissue damage. In this study, we investigated the role of receptor-interacting protein 2 (Rip2) in VEGF signalling and myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.
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| 6. |
- Back, M, et al.
(författare)
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From organic and inorganic phosphates to valvular and vascular calcifications
- 2021
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 117:9, s. 2016-2029
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Calcification of the arterial wall and valves is an important part of the pathophysiological process of peripheral and coronary atherosclerosis, aortic stenosis, ageing, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease. This review aims to better understand how extracellular phosphates and their ability to be retained as calcium phosphates on the extracellular matrix initiate the mineralization process of arteries and valves. In this context, the physiological process of bone mineralization remains a human model for pathological soft tissue mineralization. Soluble (ionized) calcium precipitation occurs on extracellular phosphates; either with inorganic or on exposed organic phosphates. Organic phosphates are classified as either structural (phospholipids, nucleic acids) or energetic (corresponding to phosphoryl transfer activities). Extracellular phosphates promote a phenotypic shift in vascular smooth muscle and valvular interstitial cells towards an osteoblast gene expression pattern, which provokes the active phase of mineralization. A line of defense systems protects arterial and valvular tissue calcifications. Given the major roles of phosphate in soft tissue calcification, phosphate mimetics, and/or prevention of phosphate dissipation represent novel potential therapeutic approaches for arterial and valvular calcification.
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| 7. |
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| 8. |
- Balogh, Johanna, et al.
(författare)
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Hearts from mice lacking desmin have a myopathy with impaired active force generation and unaltered wall compliance.
- 2002
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - 1755-3245. ; 53:2, s. 439-450
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- OBJECTIVE: Desmin intermediate filaments are key structures in the cytoskeleton of cardiac muscle. Since they are associated with Z-discs and intercalated discs, they may have a role in sarcomere alignment or force transmission. We have explored the mechanical function of the desmin filaments in the cardiac wall by comparing desmin-deficient (Des-/-) and wild-type (Des+/+) mice. METHODS: The Langendorff technique was used to examine the contractility of the whole heart. Rate of force generation, Ca(2+)-sensitivity and force per cross-sectional area were measured in skinned ventricle muscle preparations. RESULTS: Des-/- mice have a cardiomyopathy with increased heart weight. Diastolic pressure was increased at all filling volumes in the Des-/- group. Since passive wall stress (i.e. force per area) was unchanged, the alteration in diastolic pressure is a consequence of the thicker ventricle wall. Developed pressure, rate of pressure increase and developed wall stress were significantly reduced, suggesting that active force generation of the contractile apparatus is reduced in Des-/-. Concentrations of actin and myosin in the ventricle were unaltered. Measurements in skinned muscle preparations showed a lower active force development with unaltered Ca(2+)-sensitivity and rate of tension development. CONCLUSION: It is suggested that the intermediate filaments have a role in active force generation of cardiac muscle, possibly by supporting sarcomere alignment or force transmission. The desmin filaments do not contribute the passive elasticity of the ventricle wall. Des-/- mice provide a model for genetic cardiomyopathy where the main factor contributing to altered cardiac performance is a decrease in active force generation, possibly in combination with a loss of functional contractile units.
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
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| 13. |
- Benz, Alexander P., et al.
(författare)
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Stroke risk prediction in patients with atrial fibrillation with and without rheumatic heart disease
- 2021
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press. - 0008-6363 .- 1755-3245. ; 118:1, s. 295-304
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aims Patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD), especially mitral stenosis, are assumed to be at high risk of stroke, irrespective of other factors. We aimed to re-evaluate stroke risk factors in a contemporary cohort of AF patients. Methods and results We analysed data of 15 400 AF patients presenting to an emergency department and who were enrolled in the global RE-LY AF registry, representing 47 countries from all inhabited continents. Follow-up occurred at 1 year after enrolment. A total of 1788 (11.6%) patients had RHD. These patients were younger (51.4 +/- 15.7 vs. 67.8 +/- 13.6 years), more likely to be female (66.2% vs. 44.7%) and had a lower mean CHA(2)DS(2)-VASc score (2.1 +/- 1.7 vs. 3.7 +/- 2.2) as compared to patients without RHD (all P<0.001). Significant mitral stenosis (average mean transmitral gradient 11.5 +/- 6.5 mmHg) was the predominant valve lesion in those with RHD (59.6%). Patients with RHD had a higher baseline rate of anticoagulation use (60.4% vs. 45.2%, P<0.001). Unadjusted stroke rates at 1 year were 2.8% and 4.1% for patients with and without RHD, respectively. The performance of the CHA(2)DS(2)-VASc score was modest in both groups [stroke at 1 year, c-statistics 0.69, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.60-0.78 and 0.63, 95% CI 0.61-0.66, respectively]. In the overall cohort, advanced age, female sex, prior stroke, tobacco use, and non-use of anticoagulation were predictors for stroke (all P<0.05). Mitral stenosis was not associated with stroke risk (adjusted odds ratio 1.07, 95% CI 0.67-1.72, P=0.764). Conclusion The performance of the CHA(2)DS(2)-VASc score was modest in AF patients both with and without RHD. In this cohort, moderate-to-severe mitral stenosis was not an independent risk factor for stroke.
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| 14. |
- Berg, Jonathan, et al.
(författare)
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Mild hypothermia attenuates ischemia/reperfusion injury - insights from serial non-invasive pressure-volume loops
- 2023
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 119:12, s. 2230-2243
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- BACKGROUND: Mild hypothermia, 32-35°C, reduces infarct size in experimental studies, potentially mediating reperfusion injuries, but human trials have been ambiguous. To elucidate the cardioprotective mechanisms of mild hypothermia, we analyzed cardiac performance in a porcine model of ischemia/reperfusion, with serial cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging throughout one week using non-invasive pressure-volume loops.METHODS AND RESULTS: Normothermia and Hypothermia groups sessions (n=7+7 pigs, nonrandom allocation) were imaged with CMR at baseline and subjected to 40 minutes of normothermic ischemia by catheter intervention. Thereafter, the Hypothermia group was rapidly cooled (mean 34.5°C) for 5 minutes before reperfusion. Additional CMR sessions at two hours, 24 hours, and seven days acquired ventricular volumes and ischemic injuries (unblinded analysis).Stroke volume (-24%; p=0.029; Friedmans test) and ejection fraction (-20%; p=0.068) were notably reduced at 24h in the Normothermia group compared to baseline. In contrast, the decreases were ameliorated in the Hypothermia group (stroke volume: -6%; p=0.77; ejection fraction: -6%; p=0.13). Mean arterial pressure remained stable in Normothermic animals (-3%, p=0.77) but dropped two hours post-reperfusion in hypothermic animals (-18%, p=0.007). Both groups experienced a decrease and partial recovery pattern for PV loop-derived variables over one week, but the adverse effects tended attenuated in the Hypothermia group. Infarct sizes were 10±8% in Hypothermic and 15±8% in Normothermic animals (p=0.32). Analysis of covariance at 24 hours indicated that hypothermia has cardioprotective properties incremental to reducing infarct size, such as higher external power (p=0.061) and lower arterial elastance (p=0.015).CONCLUSION: Using non-invasive pressure-volume loops by CMR, we observed that mild hypothermia at reperfusion alleviates the heart's work after ischemia/reperfusion injuries during the first week and preserves short-term cardiac performance. This hypothesis-generating study suggests hypothermia to have cardioprotective properties, incremental to reducing infarct size. The primary cardioprotective mechanism was likely an afterload reduction acutely unloading the left ventricle.
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| 15. |
- Berg, M, et al.
(författare)
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3-Hydroxyanthralinic acid metabolism controls the hepatic SREBP/lipoprotein axis, inhibits inflammasome activation in macrophages, and decreases atherosclerosis in Ldlr-/- mice
- 2020
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 116:12, s. 1948-1957
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- AimsAtherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease involving immunological and metabolic processes. Metabolism of tryptophan (Trp) via the kynurenine pathway has shown immunomodulatory properties and the ability to modulate atherosclerosis. We identified 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA) as a key metabolite of Trp modulating vascular inflammation and lipid metabolism. The molecular mechanisms driven by 3-HAA in atherosclerosis have not been completely elucidated. In this study, we investigated whether two major signalling pathways, activation of SREBPs and inflammasome, are associated with the 3-HAA-dependent regulation of lipoprotein synthesis and inflammation in the atherogenesis process. Moreover, we examined whether inhibition of endogenous 3-HAA degradation affects hyperlipidaemia and plaque formation.Methods and resultsIn vitro, we showed that 3-HAA reduces SREBP-2 expression and nuclear translocation and apolipoprotein B secretion in HepG2 cell cultures, and inhibits inflammasome activation and IL-1β production by macrophages. Using Ldlr−/− mice, we showed that inhibition of 3-HAA 3,4-dioxygenase (HAAO), which increases the endogenous levels of 3-HAA, decreases plasma lipids and atherosclerosis. Notably, HAAO inhibition led to decreased hepatic SREBP-2 mRNA levels and lipid accumulation, and improved liver pathology scores.ConclusionsWe show that the activity of SREBP-2 and the inflammasome can be regulated by 3-HAA metabolism. Moreover, our study highlights that targeting HAAO is a promising strategy to prevent and treat hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis.
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| 16. |
- Berglund, Lisa, et al.
(författare)
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NFAT regulates the expression of AIF-1 and IRT-1: Yin and yang splice variants of neointima formation and atherosclerosis.
- 2012
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 93, s. 414-423
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aims Alternative transcription and splicing of the allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) gene results in the expression of two different proteins: AIF-1 and interferon responsive transcript-1 (IRT-1). Here we explore the impact of AIF-1 and IRT-1 on vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) activation and neointima formation, the mechanisms underlying their alternative splicing, and associations of AIF-1 and IRT-1 mRNA with parameters defining human atherosclerotic plaque phenotype.Methods and results Translation of AIF-1 and IRT-1 results in different products with contrasting cellular distribution and functions. Overexpression of AIF-1 stimulates migration and proliferation of human VSMCs, whereas IRT-1 exerts opposite effects. Adenoviral infection of angioplasty-injured rat carotid arteries with AdAIF-1 exacerbates intima hyperplasia, whereas infection with AdIRT-1 reduces neointima. Expression of these variants is modulated by changes in nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) activity. Pharmacological inhibition of NFAT or targeting of NFATc3 with siRNA lowers the AIF-1/IRT-1 ratio and favors an anti-proliferative outcome. NFAT acts as a repressor on the IRT-1 transcriptional start site, which is also sensitive to interferon-γ stimulation. Expression of AIF-1 mRNA in human carotid plaques associates with less extracellular matrix and a more pro-inflammatory plaque and plasma profile, features that may predispose to plaque rupture. In contrast, expression of IRT-1 mRNA associates with a less aggressive phenotype and less VSMCs at the most stenotic region of the plaque.Conclusions Inhibition of NFAT signaling, by shifting the AIF-1/IRT-1 ratio, may be an attractive target to regulate the VSMC response to injury and manipulate plaque stability in atherosclerosis.
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| 17. |
- Bhattachariya, Anirban, et al.
(författare)
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Expression of microRNAs is essential for arterial myogenic tone and pressure-induced activation of the PI3-kinase/Akt pathway.
- 2014
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 101:2, s. 288-296
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The myogenic response is the intrinsic ability of small arteries to constrict in response to increased intraluminal pressure. Although microRNAs have been shown to play a role in vascular smooth muscle function, their importance in the regulation of the myogenic response is not known. In this study, we investigate the role of microRNAs in the regulation of myogenic tone by using smooth muscle-specific and tamoxifen-inducible deletion of the endonuclease Dicer in mice.
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| 20. |
- Bosmans, Laura A., et al.
(författare)
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Myeloid CD40 deficiency reduces atherosclerosis by impairing macrophages’ transition into a pro-inflammatory state
- 2023
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 0008-6363 .- 1755-3245. ; 119:5, s. 1146-1160
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aims CD40 and its ligand, CD40L, play a critical role in driving atherosclerotic plaque development. Disrupted CD40-signalling reduces experimental atherosclerosis and induces a favourable stable plaque phenotype. We recently showed that small molecule-based inhibition of CD40-tumour necrosis factor receptor associated factor-6 interactions attenuates atherosclerosis in hyperlipidaemic mice via macrophage-driven mechanisms. The present study aims to detail the function of myeloid CD40 in atherosclerosis using myeloid-specific CD40-deficient mice. Method and Cd40flox/flox and LysM-cre Cd40flox/flox mice on an Apoe−/− background were generated (CD40wt and CD40mac−/− , respect-Results ively). Atherosclerotic lesion size, as well as plaque macrophage content, was reduced in CD40mac−/− compared to CD40wt mice, and their plaques displayed a reduction in necrotic core size. Transcriptomics analysis of the CD40mac−/− atherosclerotic aorta revealed downregulated pathways of immune pathways and inflammatory responses. Loss of CD40 in macrophages changed the representation of aortic macrophage subsets. Mass cytometry analysis revealed a higher content of a subset of alternative or resident-like CD206+CD209b− macrophages in the atherosclerotic aorta of CD40mac−/− compared to CD40wt mice. RNA-sequencing of bone marrow-derived macrophages of CD40mac−/− mice demonstrated upregulation of genes associated with alternatively activated macrophages (including Folr2, Thbs1, Sdc1, and Tns1). Conclusions We here show that absence of CD40 signalling in myeloid cells reduces atherosclerosis and limits systemic inflammation by preventing a shift in macrophage polarization towards pro-inflammatory states. Our study confirms the merit of macrophage-targeted inhibition of CD40 as a valuable therapeutic strategy to combat atherosclerosis.
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| 21. |
- Brauner, S, et al.
(författare)
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Augmented Th17 differentiation in Trim21 deficiency promotes a stable phenotype of atherosclerotic plaques with high collagen content
- 2018
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular research. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 1755-3245 .- 0008-6363. ; 114:1, s. 158-167
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- AimsPatients with hyperlipidemia are at risk of atherosclerosis, but not all develop cardiovascular disease, highlighting the importance of other risk factors such as inflammation. Both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system have been suggested in the initiation and propagation of plaque formation. Tri-partite motif (TRIM) 21 is a regulator of tissue inflammation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and has been implicated in chronic inflammatory disease. Here, we investigate a potential role for TRIM21 in coronary artery disease.Methods and resultsTrim21-deficient or wild-type bone marrow was transplanted into Ldlr-/- mice fed a hypercholesterolemic diet. The Trim21-/-->Ldlr-/- mice developed larger atherosclerotic plaques, with significantly higher collagen content compared to mice transplanted with wild-type cells. High collagen content of the atheroma is stabilizing, and has recently been linked to IL-17. Interestingly, Trim21-/-->Ldlr-/- mice had elevated CD4 and IL-17 mRNA expression in plaques, and increased numbers of activated CD4+ T cells in the periphery. An increased differentiation of naïve T cells lacking Trim21 into Th17 cells was confirmed in vitro, with transcriptomic analysis revealing upregulation of genes of a non-pathogenic Th17 phenotype. Also, decreased expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) was noted in aortic plaques. Analysis of human carotid plaques confirmed that TRIM21 expression negatively correlates with the expression of key Th17 genes and collagen, but positively to MMPs also in patients, linking our findings to a clinical setting.ConclusionIn this study, we demonstrate that TRIM21 influences atherosclerosis via regulation of Th17 responses, with TRIM21 deficiency promoting IL-17 expression and a more fibrous, stable, phenotype of the plaques.
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| 25. |
- Bäck, Magnus, et al.
(författare)
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Biomechanical factors in the biology of aortic wall and aortic valve diseases
- 2013
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Ingår i: Cardiovascular Research. - : Oxford University Press. - 0008-6363 .- 1755-3245. ; 99:2, s. 232-241
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- The biomechanical factors that result from the haemodynamic load on the cardiovascular system are a common denominator of several vascular pathologies. Thickening and calcification of the aortic valve will lead to reduced opening and the development of left ventricular outflow obstruction, referred to as aortic valve stenosis. The most common pathology of the aorta is the formation of an aneurysm, morphologically defined as a progressive dilatation of a vessel segment by more than 50% of its normal diameter. The aortic valve is exposed to both haemodynamic forces and structural leaflet deformation as it opens and closes with each heartbeat to assure unidirectional flow from the left ventricle to the aorta. The arterial pressure is translated into tension-dominated mechanical wall stress in the aorta. In addition, stress and strain are related through the aortic stiffness. Furthermore, blood flow over the valvular and vascular endothelial layer induces wall shear stress. Several pathophysiological processes of aortic valve stenosis and aortic aneurysms, such as macromolecule transport, gene expression alterations, cell death pathways, calcification, inflammation, and neoangiogenesis directly depend on biomechanical factors.
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