| 1. |
- Carlborg, Markus, 1986-
(författare)
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Refractory corrosion in biomass gasification
- 2018
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- To stop the net emission of CO2 to the atmosphere, we need to reduce our dependency of fossil fuels. Although a switch to a bio-based feedstock hardly can replace the total amount of fossils used today, utilization of biomass does still have a role in a future in combination with other techniques. Valuable chemicals today derived from fossils can also be produced from biomass with similar or new technology. One such technique is the entrained flow gasification where biomass is converted into synthesis gas. This gas can then be used as a building stone to produce a wide range of chemicals.Slagging and corrosion problems are challenges presented by the ash forming elements in biomass during thermochemical energy conversion. The high temperature in the entrained flow process together with ash forming elements is creating a harsh environment for construction materials in the reactor. Severe corrosion and high wear rates of the lining material is a hurdle that has to be overcome to make the process more efficient.The objective of this work is to investigate the nature of the destructive interaction between ash forming elements and refractory materials to provide new knowledge necessary for optimal refractory choice in entrained flow gasification of woody biomass. This has been done by studying materials exposed to slags in both controlled laboratory environments and pilot scale trials. Morphology, elemental composition and distribution of refractories and slag were investigated with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Crystalline phases were investigated with X-ray diffraction, and thermodynamic equilibrium calculations were done in efforts to explain and make predictions of the interaction between slag and refractory.Observations of slag infiltration and formation of new phases in porous materials indicate severe deterioration. The presence of Si in the materials is limiting intrusion by increasing the viscosity of infiltrated slag. This is however only a temporary delay of severe wear considering the large amount of slag that is expected to pass the refractory surface. Zircon (or zirconium) (element or mineral?) based material show promising properties when modeled with thermodynamic equilibrium, but disassembling of sintered material and dissociation of individual grains was seen after exposure to a Si- and Ca-rich slag. Fused cast materials have a minimal slag contact where the only interaction is on the immediate hot face. Dissolution was however observed when exposed to a silicate-based slag, as was the formation of NaAlO2 after contact with black liquor.
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| 2. |
- Eriksson, Matias, 1976-
(författare)
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Sustainability measures in quicklime and cement clinker production
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis investigates sustainability measures for quicklime and cement clinker production. It is the aim of this thesis to contribute to the effort of creating a more sustainable modus of industrial production.The methods used comprises process simulations through multicomponent chemical equilibrium calculations, fuel characterization and raw materials characterization through dynamic rate thermogravimetry.The investigated measures relate to alternative fuels, co-combustion, oxygen enrichment, oxyfuel combustion, mineral carbonation and optimizing raw material mixes based on thermal decomposition characteristics.The predictive multicomponent chemical equilibrium simulation tool developed has been used to investigate new process designs and combustion concepts. The results show that fuel selection and oxygen enrichment influence energy efficiency, and that oxyfuel combustion and mineral carbonation could allow for considerable emission reductions at low energy penalty, as compared to conventional post-combustion carbon dioxide capture technologies. Dynamic rate thermogravimetry, applied to kiln feed limestone, allows for improved feed analysis with a deeper understanding of how mixing of different feed materials will affect the production processes. The predictive simulation tool has proven to be of practical value when planning and executing production and full scale campaigns, reducing costs related to trial and error.The main conclusion of this work is that several measures are available to increase the sustainability of the industry.
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| 3. |
- Fagerström, Jonathan, 1984-
(författare)
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Fine particle emissions and slag formation in fixed-bed biomass combustion : aspects of fuel engineering
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- There is a consensus worldwide that the share of renewable energy sources should be increased to mitigate climate change. The strive to increase the renewable energy fraction can partly be met by an increased utilization of different biomass feedstocks. Many of the "new" feedstocks puts stress on certain challenges such as air pollution emissions and operation stability of the combustion process. The overall objective was to investigate, evaluate, and explain the effects of fuel design and combustion control - fuel engineering - as primary measures for control of slag formation, deposit formation, and fine particle emissions during biomass combustion in small and medium scale fixed-bed appliances. The work in this thesis can be outlined as having two main focus areas, one more applied regarding fuel engineering measures and one more fundamental regarding the time-resolved release of ash forming elements, with particular focus on potassium.The overall conclusion related to the abatement of particle emissions and slag formation, is that the release of fine particle and deposit forming matter can be controlled simultaneously as the slag formation during fixed-bed biomass combustion. The methodology is in this perspective denoted “fuel engineering” and is based on a combined approach including both fuel design and process control measures. The studies on time-resolved potassium release showed that a Macro-TG reactor with single pellet experiments was a valuable tool for studying ash transformation along the fuel conversion. The combination of dedicated release determinations based on accurate mass balance considerations and ICP analysis, with phase composition characterization by XRD, is important for the understanding of potassium release in general and time-resolved data in particular. For wood, the results presented in this work supports the potassium release mechanism from "char-K" but questions the previously suggested release mechanism from decomposition of K-carbonates. For straw, the present data support the idea that the major part of the potassium release is attributed to volatilization of KCl. To further explore the detailed mechanisms, the novel approach developed and applied in this work should be complemented with other experimental and analytical techniques.The research in this thesis has explored some of the challenges related to the combined phenomena of fuel conversion and ash transformation during thermochemical conversion of biomass, and has contributed with novel methods and approaches that have gained new knowledge to be used for the development of more effective bioenergy systems.
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| 4. |
- Falk, Joel, 1988-
(författare)
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The fate and ash transformations of phosphorus in combustion of biomass and sewage sludge
- 2022
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The combustion of phosphorus (P)-rich biomass has a significant potential to increase the stock of biomass resources available for renewable heat and power production. In addition, the P-rich ashes have the potential as a fertilizer and could reduce the need for non-renewable P resources in agriculture. However, several technical challenges must be resolved to realize this potential.During combustion, the ash-forming matter in the fuel undergoes numerous chemical transformations, which can result in the formation of ash melts. Excessive melt formation can lead to durable ash deposits in and around the combustion zone and on heat exchangers, which can lower combustion performance and, in severe cases, lead to a complete shutdown of the process. Further, mono-combustion of P-rich residues such as sewage sludge results in the formation of phosphates with poor plant availability, which can significantly limit the value of the ash as a fertilizer. By co-combustion the sludge with K-rich biomass, it may be possible to alter the chemical speciation of P towards more plant-available phases while simultaneously managing the risk of ash-related operational issues. This work investigates the effect of combustion technology, fuel ash composition, and chemical association of P in the fuel on the fate, i.e., distribution and speciation, and ash transformations of P in combustion and co-combustion of biomass and sewage sludge.The basis of the study was experiments performed in three different combustion technologies, including a fluidized bed (5 kW, 730-800 °C), a fixed bed (20 kW, 950-1250 °C), and a powder burner (150 kW, ~1100°C). The fuels and fuel mixtures included P-rich and P-poor woody biomass, agricultural residues, and sewage sludge, which constitute a wide range of ash compositions in terms of K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Si, and P. The residual ashes from the experiments were collected and chemically characterized with the original fuels and fuel mixtures to determine the ash transformation reactions of P. The experiments were complemented by thermodynamic equilibrium calculations (TECs), which aided the interpretation of experimental data and predicted the risk for operational issues related to the melting of coarse ash fractions.The major share of fuel P was found in coarse ash fractions such as bed ash particles, bottom ash, slag, cyclone ash, wind side deposits, and coarse fly ash. A low share of fuel P was found in fine ash fractions such as leeside deposits and PM1. This generally matched the predictions by TEC, which indicated that P was stable in condensed phases at the relevant compositions and conditions during the combustion experiments. The powder burner experiments produced the highest share of fuel P in PM1 (4-14 wt.%), followed by fixed bed combustion (<4 wt.%), with fluidized bed combustion having the lowest share (<0.6 wt.%). In addition, the experiments with sewage sludge indicated a significantly lower P share in PM1 for a given combustion technology than the other biomass fuels, ranging from <0.2 wt.% in the fluidized bed and <1.2 wt.% in the fixed bed.Combustion and co-combustion of woody biomass and agricultural residues resulted in the formation of a wide range of ortho-, pyro-, and metaphosphates associated with K, Ca, and Mg. Combustion of woody biomass generally resulted in a high share of Ca-orthophosphates, whereas agricultural residues had a higher share of K-rich ortho- and pyrophosphates. Irrespective of biomass assortment, the speciation of P in the ash from combustion and co-combustion followed general trends with respect to the fuel ash composition of the biomass mixture. The frequency and share of pyro- and metaphosphates identified in the coarse ash fractions tended to increase with the relative concentration of P to K, Ca, and Mg in the fuel mixture. A similar correlation was found between the share of K-rich phosphates and the relative concentration of K to Ca and Mg.The crystalline phosphate phases identified in the coarse ash fractions from sewage sludge and K-rich biomass experiments were mainly Fe-rich and Ca-rich orthophosphate. The frequency and share of Fe-rich orthophosphates decreased with the relative P to K, Ca, and Mg concentration in the fuel mixture. However, the sewage sludge mixtures were less prone to form K-rich orthophosphates than the biomass mixtures for a given composition in terms of P to K, Ca, and Mg.Based on TECs, it was possible to qualitatively predict ash-related issues related to the melting behavior of coarse ash fractions, such as slag formation, for woody biomass and agricultural residues by considering the K, Ca, Mg, Si, and P content in the fuel. The share of network formers (SiO2, PO2.5) to total ash oxides had the largest overall influence on the melting tendency of the ash mixture, followed by the ratio of K2O to total network modifiers (K2O, CaO, MgO), which had a high impact on ash mixtures with high relative shares of SiO2. The slagging tendency of fuel mixtures with a high share of sewage sludge could not be predicted based on the melting behavior of the K-Ca-Mg-Si-P-O system due to the high relative share of Fe and Al. The experimental results indicated that the slagging tendency of the sewage sludge was significantly improved by co-combustion with moderate amounts of wheat straw or sunflower husk.Based on the combined results, it was possible to establish four fuel ash molar ratios correlated with the speciation of P in the produced coarse ash fractions and the risk of slag formation in fixed-bed combustion. These ratios were used to recommend practical fuel mixing strategies that could enable the production of combustion ashes with high P-plant availability while simultaneously managing the risk of severe slag formation.
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| 5. |
- Hagman, Henrik, 1980-
(författare)
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Co-firing animal waste, sludge, residue wood, peat and forest fuels in a 50MWth CFB boiler : ash transformation, availability and process improvements
- 2014
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The direct variable costs for heat and electricity production based on solid biomass fuel combustion is approximately 3-5 times lower than the costs in a fossil fuel-oil based boiler in Sweden. In addition waste derived biomass fuels are typically much cheaper than biomass not classified as waste. The introduction of the waste derived fuels; wastewater treatment sludge, demolition wood, and animal waste in a 50MWth circulating fluidized bed (CFB) biomass boiler located in Perstorp, Sweden, led to rapid deposit buildup in superheaters, heavy ash accumulation in economizers and failing boiler tubes and vortex finders that forced frequent boiler shutdowns. This in turn increased the use of expensive oil (fossil fuel) in backup boilers and the CO2 footprint of the on-site energy conversion system. This work aims to increase the general mechanistic understanding of combustion systems using complex fuels, and includes: A mapping of the boiler failure and preventive maintenance statistics; elemental composition analysis of ash, deposits and fuel fractions; flue-gas composition measurements; chemical speciation analysis; an attempt to describe the overall ash transformation reactions and mass balance throughout the combustion process. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used to analyze the elemental composition of ash and deposits. The SEM-EDS results were used together with data from X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis, thermodynamic phase data, and equilibrium calculations in an attempt to quantify the crystalline phases and the overall ash transformation of the process. Based on the findings concerning ash transformation and the failure statistics, it has been possible to identify generic key parameters regarding boiler design and process parameters, enabling major improvements of the CFB boiler availability, a lower overall energy conversion cost and a reduced CO2 footprint.
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| 6. |
- Hagman, Henrik, 1980-
(författare)
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Co-firing complex biomass in a CFB boiler : ash transformation, corrosion control and materials selection
- 2018
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The effects of greenhouse gas net emissions on global warming, stricter legislation on waste handling, and the pursuit of ever cheaper heat- and power production are all important factors driving the introduction of complex fuels in incineration plants. However - without fundamental knowledge regarding ash transformation, corrosion control, and materials selection – this introduction of potentially economically and environmentally beneficial fuels, might instead cause economic loss and environmentally adverse effects.The present work is a contribution to the transition from today's CO2 net generating energy conversion system, to a more environmentally friendly and cost-efficient one. This is done using scientific methods to generate knowledge concerning mechanisms of ash transformation, corrosion control, and materials selection, in a co-fired industrial scale circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler, using a novel and biomass-based fuel mix, rich in Na, K, Cl, N, S, P, Ca and Si. Fuel fractions, ashes, flue gas, deposits, and construction material samples have been collected and analyzed using various techniques, including scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). The experimental results have been evaluated and interpreted using chemical equilibrium calculations.The results of this work include:1) An analysis of; the failure and preventive maintenance statistics of the industrial scale CFB boiler at hand; the elemental composition of boiler ashes and deposits, the flue gas composition and elemental composition of a multitude of fuel fractions; correlations between boiler design, operational parameters, elemental composition of deposits and boiler availability; a boiler elemental mass balance revealing details regarding deposit buildup mechanisms; properties of the fly ash relevant to flue gas filter design; and findings regarding the nitrogen chemistry of the novel and nitrogen-rich fuel mix.2) Speciation and description of the overall ash transformation and fireside alloy interaction, enabling the implementation of on-line corrosion control which significantly inhibits superheater and dew-point corrosion in the boiler; and, an equation describing the sulfation potential of the fuel mix, as a result of the direct and indirect interactions between all major ash-forming elements.3) A literature review relevant for the co-fired CFB cyclone vortex finder alloy selection and corrosion at 880 °C; An alloy selection study including long term exposures of several commercially available alloys identifying materials that are more than twice as cost-efficient as the often used alloy 253MA; a suggestion of novel methods for both systematic comparison of heavily degraded alloys, and for alloy service-life estimations; a detailed analysis of heavily degraded alloys 310S, 800H/HT and 600, identifying the driving corrosion mechanisms of the VF alloy degradation, including aspects of how the alloy internal mass transport and fireside surface interaction develops over time.The knowledge gained during this project has been used in the improvement work of the Perstorp 50 MWth CFB boiler, improving the boiler availability with 7 %, reducing the overall energy conversion costs with around 1.7 MEUR/year.
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| 7. |
- Nyström, Robin, 1985-
(författare)
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Particle emissions from residential wood and biodiesel combustion
- 2016
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Emissions from anthropogenic combustion sources, such as vehicles and biomass combustion, contribute significantly to ambient particulate matter (PM) both on a local and global scale. Exposure to ambient PM and air pollution in general is linked to a variety of different health effects and it has been estimated that as many as 2.1 million premature deaths each year, due to cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer, are caused by the changes in anthropogenic air pollution since pre-industrial times. There is today still a lack of information regarding the emissions of different specific particulate emission components, e.g. soot, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), oxy-PAHs combined with details about the behaviour of different fuels under varying combustion conditions. The overall objective of this work was to provide new knowledge regarding physical and chemical properties of PM from solid and liquid biofuels, which are important for the viewpoint of human health and atmospheric pollution. This was achieved by experimental studies of the combustion of biomass using a residential wood stove and by introducing biodiesel to an off-road engine, thereby investigating two major emission sources for PM and gaseous emissions.From the two papers regarding biodiesel included in this thesis, it can be concluded that the introduction of the biodiesel, and potentially other renewable fuels, can in a considerable way change the exhaust particle emissions. This could have implications for the assessment of exhaust from engines running on biodiesel fuels, especially when introducing biodiesel in existing and older engines.The results from the wood combustion research performed showed some important considerations regarding both specific particle properties and the influences of different burning conditions and fuels. One major finding, based on several of the included studies, was that a proper operation of a wood stove is of major importance to avoid unfavourable burning condition and elevated emissions of soot and organic particles, regardless of the wood species used. Some specific occasions during the burning phases in batch wise wood combustion were also identified as important for the overall emissions. The results from this research has given new specific insights into the emissions from wood stoves and should be of relevance for both technological development of residential appliances, emission testing/certification, information to users and legislation.
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| 8. |
- Rebbling, Anders, 1980-
(författare)
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Application of fuel design to mitigate ash-related problems during combustion of biomass
- 2019
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The energy supply of today is, through the use of fossil energy carriers,contributing to increased net emissions of greenhouse gases. This hasseveral negative effects on our environment and our climate. In order toreduce the impact of this, and possibly to reverse some of the effects, allrenewable energy sources must be used. Biomass is the renewable energycarrier that has the greatest potential to reduce net greenhouse gasemissions, but the transition from fossil fuels to biofuels is challenging.The combustion of biomass is associated with various technical andenvironmental problems such as slagging, corrosion, and emissions ofparticles, soot, or harmful chemical compounds. Most of these problemsare linked to ash chemical reactions involving alkali metals. Therefore, toreduce the risk of operational and environmental problems, it is importantto understand and control the ash transformation reactions involvingalkali metals.The research presented in this thesis has focused on the development oftools, such as models and indices, for predicting the behaviour of variousbiofuels during combustion, and on the development of the concept of fueldesign and implementation of the same during industrial combustion ofbiomass. The development of easy-to-use tools for predicting problematicash behaviour is crucial in order to make it possible to increase the use ofbiomass as an alternative to fossil fuels. The tools presented here are basedon theoretical and empirical knowledge and can be used to predictchallenges concerning the fuel ash composition and to propose relevantfuel design measures.The purpose of fuel design, as used here, is to broaden the fuel feedstockand to increase the usability of biomass in the global energy system. Thisis achieved through measures to change the ash chemical composition inorder to enhance beneficial properties, or reduce problematic properties,via the use of additives or blending of two or more different fuels.The present thesis extends the foundation of knowledge regarding fuel ashtransformation reactions and their implications for operational problemsthrough in-depth laboratory studies and analyses. Furthermore, thefeasibility of applying this extended knowledge in the medium and largescaleindustrial combustion of biomass is demonstrated and validated. More specifically, a slagging index has been developed using the results ofseveral years of combustion experiments. Fuel designs based on the indexwas demonstrated during normal operation in local and district heatingplants. Furthermore, a model was developed for predicting slaggingproblems that take into account both the chemical composition of the fueland the burner technology.Several studies have also been performed on different fuel designs basedon the same foundation as the index and the model. Additives to supply forexample calcium and sulphur, as well as the clay kaolin, have been used toreduce both technical and environmental problems.The conclusion is that fuel design, based on ash chemistry, is a possiblepath for increased fuel flexibility and a broader feedstock for bioenergy.
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| 9. |
- Råberg, Mathias, 1977-
(författare)
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Black liquor gasification : experimental stability studies of smelt components and refractory lining
- 2007
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Black liquors are presently combusted in recovery boilers where the inorganic cooking chemicals are recovered and the energy in the organic material is converted to steam and electricity. A new technology, developed by Chemrec AB, is black liquor gasification (BLG). BLG has more to offer compared to the recovery boiler process, in terms of on-site generation of electric power, liquid fuel and process chemicals. A prerequisite for both optimization of existing processes and the commercialization of BLG is better understanding of the physical and chemical processes involved including interactions with the refractory lining. The chemistry in the BLG process is very complex and to minimize extensive and expensive time-consuming studies otherwise required accurate and reliable model descriptions are needed for a full understanding of most chemical and physical processes as well as for up-scaling of the new BLG processes. However, by using these calculated model results in practice, the errors in the state of the art thermochemical data have to be considered. An extensive literature review was therefore performed to update the data needed for unary, binary and higher order systems. The results from the review reviled that there is a significant range of uncertainty for several condensed phases and a few gas species. This resulted in experimental re-determinations of the binary phase diagrams sodium carbonate-sodium sulfide (Na2CO3-Na2S) and sodium sulfate-sodium sulfide (Na2SO4-Na2S) using High Temperature Microscopy (HTM), High Temperature X-ray Diffraction (HT-XRD) and Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA). For the Na2CO3-Na2S system, measurements were carried out in dry inert atmosphere at temperatures from 25 to 1200 °C. To examine the influence of pure CO2 atmosphere on the melting behavior, HTM experiments in the same temperature interval were made. The results include re-determination of liquidus curves, in the Na2CO3 rich area, melting points of the pure components as well as determination of the extent of the solid solution, Na2CO3(ss), area. The thermal stability of Na2SO3 was studied and the binary phase diagram Na2SO4-Na2S was re-determined. The results indicate that Na2SO3 can exist for a short time up to 750 °C, before it melts. It was also proved that a solid/solid transformation, not reported earlier, occurs at 675 ± 10 °C. At around 700 °C, Na2SO3 gradually breaks down within a few hours, to finally form the solid phases Na2SO4 and Na2S. From HTM measurements a metastable phase diagram including Na2SO3, as well as an equilibrium phase diagram have been constructed for the binary system Na2SO4-Na2S. Improved data on Na2S was experimentally obtained by using solid-state EMF measurements. The equilibrium constant for Na2S(s) was determined to be log Kf(Na2S(s)) (± 0.05) = 216.28 – 4750(T/K)–1 – 28.28878 ln (T/K). Gibbs energy of formation for Na2S(s) was obtained as ΔfG°(Na2S(s))/(kJ mol–1) (± 1.0) = 90.9 – 4.1407(T/K) + 0.5415849(T/K) ln (T/K). The standard enthalpy of formation of Na2S(s) was evaluated to be ΔfH°(Na2S(s), 298.15 K)/(kJ mol–1) (± 1.0) = – 369.0. The standard entropy was evaluated to be S°(Na2S(s), 298.15 K)/(J mol–1 K–1) (± 2.0) = 97.0. Analyses of used refractory material from the Chemrec gasifier were also performed in order to elucidate the stability of the refractory lining. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed that the chemical attack was limited to 250-300 μm, of the surface directly exposed to the gasification atmosphere and the smelt. From XRD analysis it was found that the phases in this surface layer of the refractory were dominated by sodiumaluminosilicates, mainly Na1.55Al1.55Si0.45O4.
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| 10. |
- Skoglund, Nils, 1979-
(författare)
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Ash chemistry and fuel design focusing on combustion of phosphorus-rich biomass
- 2014
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Biomass is increasingly used as a feedstock in global energy production. This may present operational challenges in energy conversion processes which are related to the inorganic content of these biomasses. As a larger variety of biomass is used the need for a basic understanding of ash transformation reactions becomes increasingly important. This is not only to reduce operational problems but also to facilitate the use of ash as a nutrient source for new biomass production.Ash transformation reactions were examined in the present work using the Lewis acid-base concept. The model presented in Paper I was further extended and discussed, including the definition of tertiary ash transformation reactions as reaction steps where negatively charged molecular ions, Lewis bases, other than hydroxides are present in the reactants. The effect of such reactions for bonding of various metal ions, Lewis acids, were discussed. It was found that the formation of various phosphates through secondary and tertiary ash transformation reactions is important for the behaviour of biomass ash in combustion. The suggested model was supported by findings in Papers II-VIII.The experimental findings in Papers II-VIII were discussed in terms of ash transformation reactions. The fuel design choices made to investigate the effect of phosphorus in particular on ash transformation reactions were high-lighted. Addition of phosphoric acid to woody-type and agricultural biomasses showed that phosphate formation has a large influence on the speciation of Si, S, and Cl. Co-combustion of a problematic agricultural residue with other biomasses showed that the relation between phosphorus, alkali and alkaline earth metal content is important. Co-combustion of biosolids with wheat straw was shown to greatly improve the combustion properties of wheat straw.It was suggested that fuel analyses should be presented using molar concentration (mole/kg) in diagrams based on ash transformation reactions and elements forming Lewis acids or bases. This may facilitate the assessment of the combustion behaviour of a fuel. Some comments were made on fuel design and additives, specifically pointing out that phosphorus content should always be carefully considered in relation to alkali and alkaline earth metals in fuels and fuel blends.
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