| 1. |
- Boström, Dan, 1954-, et al.
(författare)
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Ash transformations in fluidized-bed combustion of rapeseed meal
- 2009
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Ingår i: Energy & Fuels. - : American Chemical Society (ACS). - 0887-0624 .- 1520-5029. ; 23:5, s. 2700-2706
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The global production of rapeoil is increasing. A byproduct is rapeseed meal that is a result of the oil extraction process. Presently the rapeseed meal mainly is utilized as animal feed. An interesting alternative use is, however, energy conversion by combustion. This study was undertaken to determine the combustion properties of rapeseed meal and bark mixtures in a bubbling fluidized bed, with emphasis on gas emissions, ash formation, -fractionation and -interaction with the bed material. Due to the high content of phosphorus in rapeseed meal the fuel ash is dominated by phosphates, in contrast to most woody biomass where the ash is dominated by silicates. From a fluidized bed combustion (FBC) point of view, rapeseed meal could be a suitable fuel. Considering FBC agglomeration effects, pure rapeseed meal is in level with the most suitable fuels, as earlier tested by the methods utilized in the present investigation. The SO2 emission, however, is higher than most woody biomass fuels as a direct consequence of the high levels of sulfur in the fuel. Also the particulate matter emission, both submicron and coarser particles, is higher. Again this can be attributed the high ash content of rapeseed meal. The high abundance of SO2 is apparently effective for sulfatization of KCl in the flue gas. Practically no KCl was observed in the particulate matter of the flue gas. A striking difference in the mechanisms of bed agglomeration for rapeseed meal compared to woody biomass fuels was also observed. The ubiquitous continuous layers on the bed grains found in FBC combustion of woody biomass fuels was not observed in the present investigation. Instead very thin and discontinuous layers were observed together with isolated partly melted bed ash particles. The latter could occasionally be seen as adhered to the quartz bed grains. Apparently the bed agglomeration mechanism, that obviously demanded rather high temperatures, involved more of adhesion by partly melted ash derived potassium-calcium phosphate bed ash particles/droplets than direct attack of gaseous alkali on the quartz bed grains forming potassium-calcium silicate rich bed grain layers. An explanation could be found in the considerable higher affinity for base cations of phosphorus than silicon. This will to a great extent withdraw the present basic oxides from attacking the quartz bed grains with agglomeration at low temperatures as a result.
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| 2. |
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| 3. |
- Eriksson, Gunnar, et al.
(författare)
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Combustion and fuel characterisation of wheat distillers dried grain with solubles (DDGS) and possible combustion applications
- 2012
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Ingår i: Fuel. - : Elsevier. - 0016-2361 .- 1873-7153. ; 102, s. 208-220
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The present transition to a sustainable global energy system requires that biomass is increasingly combusted for heat and power production. Agricultural fuels considered include alkali-rich fuels with high phosphorus content. One such fuel is wheat distiller’s dried grain with solubles (wheat DDGS) from wheat-based ethanol production. Further increases in ethanol production may saturate the current market for wheat DDGS as livestock feed, and fuel uses are therefore considered. Fuel properties of wheat DDGS have been determined. The ash content (5.4 ± 1.6 %wt d.s.) is similar to many agricultural fuels. In comparison to most other biomass fuels the sulphur content is high (0.538 ± 0.232 %wt d.s.), and so are the contents of nitrogen (5.1 ± 0.6 %wt d.s.), phosphorus (0.960. ± 0.073 %wt d.s.) and potassium (1.30 ± 0.35 %wt d.s.). To determine fuel-specific combustion properties, wheat DDGS and mixes between wheat DDGS and logging residues (LR 60 %wt d.s. and DDGS 40 %wt d.s.), and wheat straw (wheat straw 50 %wt d.s., DDGS 50 %wt d.s.) were pelletized and combusted in a bubbling fluidised bed combustor (5 kW) and in a pellets burner combustor (20 kW). Pure wheat DDGS powder was also combusted in a powder burner (150 kW). Wheat DDGS had a high bed agglomeration and slagging tendency compared to other biomass fuels, although these tendencies were significantly lower for the mixture with the Ca-rich LR, probably reflecting the higher first melting temperatures of K–Ca/Mg-phosphates compared to K-phosphates. Combustion and co-combustion of wheat DDGS resulted in relatively large emissions of fine particles (<1 μm) for all combustion appliances. For powder combustion PMtot was sixteen times higher than from softwood stem wood. While the Cl concentrations of the fine particles from the the mixture of LR and wheat DDGS in fluidised bed combustion were lower than from combustion of pure LR, the Cl- and P-concentrations were considerably higher from the wheat DDGS mixtures combusted in the other appliances at higher fuel particle temperature. The particles from powder combustion of wheat DDGS contained mainly K, P, Cl, Na and S, and as KPO3 (i.e. the main phase identified with XRD) is known to have a low melting temperature, this suggests that powder combustion of wheat DDGS should be used with caution. The high slagging and bed agglomeration tendency of wheat DDGS, and the high emissions of fine particles rich in K, P and Cl from combustion at high temperature, mean that it is best used mixed with other fuels, preferably with high Ca and Mg contents, and in equipment where fuel particle temperatures during combustion are moderate, i.e. fluidised beds and possibly grate combustors rather than powder combustors.
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| 4. |
- Eriksson, Gunnar, et al.
(författare)
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Combustion characterization of rapeseed meal and possible combustion applications
- 2009
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Ingår i: Energy & Fuels. - : American Chemical Society (ACS). - 0887-0624 .- 1520-5029. ; 23:8, s. 3930-3939
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A future shortage of biomass fuel can be foreseen. The production of rapeseed oil for a number of purposes is increasing, among others, for biodiesel production. A byproduct from the oil extraction process is rapeseed meal (RM), presently used as animal feed. Further increases in supply will make fuel use an option. Several energy companies have shown interest but have been cautious because of the scarcity of data on fuel properties, which led to the present study. Combustion-relevant properties of RM from several producers have been determined. The volatile fraction (74 ± 0.06%wtds) is comparable to wood; the moisture content (6.2−11.8%wt) is low; and the ash content (7.41 ± 0.286%wtds) is high compared to most other biomass fuels. The lower heating value is 18.2 ± 0.3 MJ/kg (dry basis). In comparison to other biomass fuels, the chlorine content is low (0.02−0.05%wtds) and the sulfur content is high (0.67−0.74%wtds). RM has high contents of nitrogen (5.0−6.4%wtds), phosphorus (1.12−1.23%wtds), and potassium (1.2−1.4%wtds). Fuel-specific combustion properties of typical RM were determined through combustion tests, with an emphasis on gas emissions, ash formation, and potential ash-related operational problems. Softwood bark was chosen as a suitable and representative co-combustion (woody) fuel. RM was added to the bark at two levels: 10 and 30%wtds. These mixtures were pelletized, and so was RM without bark (for durability mixed with cutter shavings, contributing 1%wt of the ash). Each of these fuels was combusted in a 5 kW fluidized bed and an underfed pellet burner (to simulate grate combustion). Pure RM was combusted in a powder burner. Emissions of NO and SO2 were high for all combustion tests, requiring applications with flue gas cleaning, economically viable only at large scale. Emissions of HCl were relatively low. Temperatures for initial bed agglomeration in the fluidized-bed tests were high for RM compared to many other agricultural fuels, thereby indicating that RM could be an attractive fuel from a bed agglomeration point of view. The results of grate combustion suggest that slagging is not likely to be severe for RM, pure or mixed with other fuels. Fine-mode particles from fluidized-bed combustion and grate combustion mainly contained sulfates of potassium, suggesting that the risk of problems caused by deposit formation should be moderate. The chlorine concentration of the particles was reduced when RM was added to bark, potentially lowering the risk of high-temperature corrosion. Particle emissions from powder combustion of RM were 17 times higher than for wood powder, and the fine-mode fraction contained mainly K-phosphates known to cause deposits, suggesting that powder combustion of RM should be used with caution. A possible use of RM is as a sulfur-containing additive to biomass fuels rich in Cl and K for avoiding ash-related operational problems in fluidized beds and grate combustors originated from high KCl concentrations in the flue gases.
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| 5. |
- Eriksson, Gunnar, et al.
(författare)
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Förbränningskarakterisering av rapsmjöl och förslag till optimalt nyttjande i olika förbränningsanläggningar
- 2007
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- When rape oil is chemically extracted, rape seed meal, a solid residue remains. Currently, it is used as animal feed. Several plants for the production of rape methyl ester (RME, biodiesel) are in operation or under construction. Combustion properties have been studied for rape seed meal produced as a by product to rape-methyl esther (RME, biodiesel). Composition of the material has been measured, using proximate and ultimate analysis. The lower heating value was 18.2 ± 0,3 MJ/kg d.w. and the ash content was 7-8 percent d.w. The material is rich in nitrogen and sulphur. Concentrations of K, P, Ca and Mg are high in the fuel. Rape seed meal was mixed with bark and pelletised. Bark pellets were also used as a reference fuel. Pellets with 10 and 30 percent rape seed meal were produced. Material with 80 percent rape seed meal and 20 percent planer shavings was also pelletised. Wood had to be added to provide enough friction in the pelletising process, with adapted equipment rape seed meal could probably be easily pelletised). The material was studied using Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and compared with data from tests with wood powder. The pyrolysis of the rape seed meal has a characteristic temperature of 320oC. Devolatilisation starts at 150 oC (at a lower temperature than for wood powder), and proceeds within a rather wide temperature range. The probable cause is the difference in organic content, in particular protein content. The result does not suggest that the material will be difficult to ignite. Experiments in a bench-scale fluidised bed (5 kW) showed that pellets containing only bark, and the mixture rape seed meal/wood had a bed agglomeration temperature well over the normal operational bed temperature. For the fuel mixtures rape seed meal and bark, the agglomeration temperature was slightly over the operational temperature. Particle emissions from fluidised bed combustion and grate combustion were, the latter simulated using a commercial pellet burner, were roughly doubled with fuels containing rape seed meal compared to bark. In the powder burner tests, particle emissions increased with a factor 17 with rape seed meal compared to wood powder. The emitted particles were mainly found in the fine (< 1 µm) mode during grate and powder combustion. During fluidized bed combustion the total particulate matter consisted both of a coarse (>1 µm) and a fine mode fraction. The particles from grate combustion of bark contain mostly K, S, Na and Cl apart from oxygen and carbon. When rape seed meal is present, Cl and Na concentrations decrease considerably and the main contents of the particles are K and S (and O and C). The results from the X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD) analyses showed the presence of crystalline K2SO4 och KCl. The fine particles (<1 µm) from powder combustion contain mainly K, P and S. The only identified crystalline phase was K2SO4, suggesting that most phosphorus was in the amorphous phase, i.d. most probably molten. The deposit formation on a cooled probe was studied during the fluidized bed and powder combustion experiments. The fine particles deposited during fluidised bed combustion contained K, Cl and S. When bark was combusted in the fluidised bed, the coarse fraction contained Ca and Si, when rape seed meal in different mixes was combusted this changed to P, K, Ca and Mg. The deposits formed during combustion of rape seed meal in the powder burner were mainly made up of phosphates (Ca-, Mg/K-, Ca/Mg-phosphates) and MgO. Sintered material (slag) from grate combustion of bark contained mainly Si, Ca, K and Al, probably as silicates. Adding rape seed meal tended to increase P, Ca and Mg while Si and Ca content tended to decrease. Through XRD a number o crystalline phases in the sintered material and the rest of the bottom ashes could be identified. NO emissions from the combustions tests increased two to four times with rape seed meal compared to typical wood fuels. For the fluidised bed test, SO2 concentrations were rather high for the rape seed meal pellets (with 20 percent wood), still only about 20 percent of the sulphur in the fuel formed SO2. For the grate combustion and powder burner combustion, 60 percent and 70 percent of the sulphur respectively formed SO2. HCl emissions were low for all tests. The rather high emissions of NOx and SOx mean that the material should be used in large-scale facilities with external SOx and NOx cleaning. In smaller facilities, the material may be used in small amounts mixed with other fuels. The risk of slagging is not very high, and should not rule out grate combustion of pellets with rape seed meal mixed with other fuels. The risk of corrosion of superheater surfaces during combustion is probably low since the smaller-size particles formed at fluidised bed combustion and grate combustion contain K2SO4. However, a large fraction of the particles formed in powder burner combustion probably contains low temperature melting K2PO4, making the risk for deposit formation significant. Rape seed meal for powder burner applications should be used with care. The content of phosphorus in the material may be an advantage when mixes of rape seed meal and other fuels are considered. The high affinity between potassium and phosphorus means that more sulphur in the fuel will be available for sulphatising of any KC. (formed from combustion of many forest and agricultural fuels). Use of rape seed meal as a sulphur containing additive could thus be an option. For grate combustion and fluidised bed combustion, addition of rape seed meal may reduce the risk of slagging and bed agglomeration, respectively. Full scale tests in fluidised beds or grate combustors with problematic biofuels (containing Cl and K) would be useful to test whether ash-reduced operational problems could be reduced through the addition of rape seed meal.
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Grimm, Alejandro, et al.
(författare)
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Effekter av fosfortillsats vid förbränning av biomassa
- 2010
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Resultaten från försöken visar att fosforrika additiv kan vara intressanta för att reducera beläggningsbildning och högtemperaturkorrosion utan att i någon större omfattning öka slaggnings- och bäddagglomereringstendensen hos typiska biobränslen. För att erhålla en märkbar positiv effekt av kaliumbindning till fosfater krävs att mängden kalcium och magnesium i den slutgiltiga bränslemixen inte är alltför hög relativt mängden fosfor, då framför allt Ca men till viss del även Mg reagerar med P innan K binds in effektivt. Generellt behövs troligen inblandningsgrader motsvarande en molkvot P/(K+Na+2/3Mg+2/3Ca) i bränslemixen som närmar sig 1. För att erhålla en molkvot på 1 i ett typiskt halm-, salix- eller grotbränsle innebär det i praktiken en fosfortillsats motsvarande 12, 4.7 respektive 3.7 gram rent P per kg torrt bränsle.
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