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| 2. |
- Klionsky, Daniel J., et al.
(författare)
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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy
- 2012
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Ingår i: Autophagy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1554-8635 .- 1554-8627. ; 8:4, s. 445-544
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.
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| 3. |
- Vangal, Sriram, et al.
(författare)
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An 80-Tile 1.28TFLOPS Network-on-Chip in 65nm CMOS
- 2007
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Ingår i: IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, San Fransisco, USA, 2007. - : IEEE. - 1424408539 ; , s. 98-99
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- A 275mm2 network-on-chip architecture contains 80 tiles arranged as a 10 times 8 2D array of floating-point cores and packet-switched routers, operating at 4GHz. The 15-F04 design employs mesochronous clocking, fine-grained clock gating, dynamic sleep transistors, and body-bias techniques. The 65nm 100M transistor die is designed to achieve a peak performance of 1.0TFLOPS at 1V while dissipating 98W.
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| 4. |
- Vangal, Sriram, et al.
(författare)
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A 5.1GHz 0.34mm2 Router for Network-on-Chip Applications
- 2007
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Ingår i: 2007 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Circuits. - : IEEE. - 9784900784048 - 9784900784055 ; , s. 42-43
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- A five-port two-lane pipelined packet-switched router core with phase-tolerant mesochronous links forms the key communication fabric for an 80-tile network-on-chip (NoC) architecture. The 15FO4 design combines 102 GB/s of raw bandwidth with low fall-through latency of 980 ps. A shared crossbar architecture with a double-pumped crossbar switch enables a compact 0.34 mm2 router layout. In a 65nm eight-metal CMOS process, the router contains 210K transistors and operates at 5.1GHz at 1.2 V, while dissipating 945 mW.
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| 5. |
- Vangal, Sriram, et al.
(författare)
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A 5 GHz floating point multiply-accumulator in 90 nm dual VT CMOS
- 2003
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Ingår i: IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, Digest of Technical Papers. - : IEEE. - 0780377079 ; , s. 334-335
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- A 32 b single-cycle floating point accumulator that uses base 32 and carry-save format with delayed addition is described. Combined algorithmic, logic and circuit techniques enable multiply-accumulate operation at 5 GHz. In a 90 nm 7M dual-VT CMOS process, the 2 mm2 prototype contains 230K transistors and dissipates 1.2 W at 5 GHz, 1.2 V and 25°C.
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