| 1. |
- Carrillo, Emilio, et al.
(author)
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Structural significance of an evaporite formation with lateral stratigraphic heterogeneities (Southeastern Pyrenean Basin, NE Spain)
- 2017
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In: Marine and Petroleum Geology. - : Elsevier. - 0264-8172 .- 1873-4073. ; 86, s. 1310-1326
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We run a series of analogue models to study the effect of stratigraphic heterogeneities of an evaporite formation on thin-skinned deformation of the Southeastern Pyrenean Basin (SPB; NE Spain). This basin is characterized by the existence of evaporites, deposited during the Early-Middle Eocene with lateral variations in thickness and lithological composition. These evaporites are distributed in three lithostratigraphic units, known as Serrat Evaporites, Vallfogona and Beuda Gypsum formations and acted as decollement levels, during compressional deformation in the Lutetian. In addition to analogue modeling, we have used field data, detailed geological mapping and key cross-sections supported by seismic and well data to build a new structural interpretation for the SPB. In this interpretation, it is recognized that the basal and upper parts of the Serrat Evaporites acted as the main decollement levels of the so-called Cadi thrust sheet and Serrat unit. A balanced restoration of the basin indicates that thrust faults nucleated at the stratigraphic transition of the Serrat Evaporites (zone with lateral variations of thickness and lithological composition), characterized by a wedge of anhydrite and shale. The analogue models were setup based on information extracted from cross-sections, built in two sectors with different lithology and stratigraphy of the evaporites, and the restored section of the SPB. In these models, deformation preferentially concentrated in areas where thickness change, defined by wedges of the ductile materials, was inbuilt. Based on the structural interpretation and model results, a kinematic evolution of the SPB is proposed. The kinematic model is characterized by the generation of out-of-sequence structures developed due to lateral stratigraphic variations of the Serrat Evaporites. The present work shows a good example of the role of stratigraphic heterogeneities of an evaporite formation which acts as decollement level on structural deformation in a fold-thrust belt. The results of this work have implications for hydrocarbon exploration and are relevant for studying structural geometry and mechanics in shortened evaporite basins. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 2. |
- Koyi, Hemin, et al.
(author)
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Modelling role of basement block rotation and strike-slip faulting on structural pattern in cover units of fold-and-thrust belts
- 2016
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In: Geological Magazine. - 0016-7568 .- 1469-5081. ; 153:5-6, s. 827-844
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- A series of scaled analogue models are used to study (de)coupling between basement and cover deformation. Rigid basal blocks were rotated about a vertical axis in a 'bookshelf'€™ fashion, which caused strike-slip faulting along the blocks and in the overlying cover units of loose sand. Three different combinations of cover–basement deformations are modelled: (i) cover shortening before basement fault movement; (ii) basement fault movement before cover shortening; and (iii) simultaneous cover shortening with basement fault movement. Results show that the effect of the basement faults depends on the timing of their reactivation. Pre- and syn-orogenic basement fault movements have a significant impact on the structural pattern of the cover units, whereas post-orogenic basement fault movement has less influence on the thickened hinterland of the overlying belt. The interaction of basement faulting and cover shortening results in the formation of rhombic structures. In models with pre- and syn-orogenic basement strike-slip faults, rhombic blocks develop as a result of shortening of the overlying cover during basement faulting. These rhombic blocks are similar in appearance to flower structures, but are different in kinematics, genesis and structural extent. We compare these model results to both the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt in southwestern Iran and the Alborz Mountains in northern Iran. Based on the model results, we conclude that the traces of basement faults in cover units rotate and migrate towards the foreland during regional shortening. As such, these traces do not necessarily indicate the actual location or orientation of the basement faults which created them.
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| 3. |
- Liu, Zhina, et al.
(author)
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Kinematics and 3-D internal deformation of granular slopes : analogue models and natural landslides
- 2013
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In: Journal of Structural Geology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0191-8141 .- 1873-1201. ; 53, s. 27-42
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This study uses results from a series of analogue models, and field observations, scanned data and sections of natural landslides to investigate the kinematics and internal deformation during the failure of an unstable slope. The models simulate collapse of granular slopes and focus on the spatial and temporal distribution of their internal structures. Using a series of systematically designed models, we have studied the effect of friction and deformability of the runout base on internal deformation within a granular slope. The results of these different models show that the collapse of granular slopes resulted in different-generation extensional faults at the back of the slope, and contractional structures (overturned folds, sheath folds and thrusts) at the toe of the slope. The failure surfaces and the volume of the failure mass changed both spatially and temporally. Younger failure surfaces formed in the back of the older ones by incorporating additional new material from the head of the slope. Our model results also show that the nature of the runout base has a significant influence on the runout distance, topography and internal deformation of a granular slope. Model results are compared with natural landslides where local profiles were dug in order to decipher the internal structures of the failure mass. The natural cases show similar structural distribution at the head and toe of the failure mass. As in model results, our field observations indicate the presence of at least two generations of failure surfaces where the older ones are steeper.
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| 4. |
- Schreurs, Guido, et al.
(author)
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Benchmarking analogue models of brittle thrust wedges
- 2016
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In: Journal of Structural Geology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0191-8141 .- 1873-1201. ; 92, s. 116-139
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We performed a quantitative comparison of brittle thrust wedge experiments to evaluate the variability among analogue models and to appraise the reproducibility and limits of model interpretation. Fifteen analogue modeling laboratories participated in this benchmark initiative. Each laboratory received a shipment of the same type of quartz and corundum sand and all laboratories adhered to a stringent model building protocol and used the same type of foil to cover base and sidewalls of the sandbox. Sieve structure, sifting height, filling rate, and details on off-scraping of excess sand followed prescribed procedures. Our analogue benchmark shows that even for simple plane-strain experiments with prescribed stringent model construction techniques, quantitative model results show variability, most notably for surface slope, thrust spacing and number of forward and backthrusts. One of the sources of the variability in model results is related to slight variations in how sand is deposited in the sandbox. Small changes in sifting height, sifting rate, and scraping will result in slightly heterogeneous material bulk densities, which will affect the mechanical properties of the sand, and will result in lateral and vertical differences in peak and boundary friction angles, as well as cohesion values once the model is constructed. Initial variations in basal friction are inferred to play the most important role in causing model variability. Our comparison shows that the human factor plays a decisive role, and even when one modeler repeats the same experiment, quantitative model results still show variability. Our observations highlight the limits of up-scaling quantitative analogue model results to nature or for making comparisons with numerical models. The frictional behavior of sand is highly sensitive to small variations in material state or experimental set-up, and hence, it will remain difficult to scale quantitative results such as number of thrusts, thrust spacing, and pop-up width from model to nature.
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| 5. |
- Shahpasandzadeh, Majid, et al.
(author)
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The significance of switch in convergence direction in the Alborz Mountains, northern Iran: insights from scaled analogue modelling
- 2017
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In: Interpretation. - 2324-8858 .- 2324-8866. ; 5:1, s. SD81-SD98
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The switch in direction of convergence between Central Iran and the Eurasian plate is believed to have a significant impact on the structural style in the Alborz Mountains, in north of Iran. To understand the deformation pattern and investigate the influence of the South Caspian Basin (SCB) kinematics since the middle Miocene on the structural styles and active tectonics of the Alborz Mountains, a series of scaled analogue models were prepared, where passively layered loose sand simulating the sedimentary units were subjected to orthogonal and subsequently oblique shortening by a rigid indenter. Model results show that during the shortening an arcuate-shape foreland-vergent imbricate stack forms in front of the indenter. The orthogonal shortening is characterized by a prevailing right-lateral and left-lateral oblique-slip motion in the east and west of the model, respectively. This shift in kinematics contradicts the proposed pre-neotectonic (orthogonal) model of the Alborz. However, during oblique shortening, model results show that deformation is mainly accommodated by left-lateral transpression within the sand wedge and by its internal deformation. Oblique shortening is consistently accommodated by continued left-lateral motion on the WNW-trending oblique thrusts, whereas the east-west trending thrusts and the pre-existing ENE-trending right-lateral oblique thrusts reactivate as left-lateral oblique faults. Precise monitoring of the model surface also illustrates partitioning of shortening into the foreland-vergent left-lateral thrusting in the south and hinterland-vergent back thrusting in the north. These model results are generally consistent with field observations and GPS data of structure and kinematics of the Alborz Mountains.
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| 6. |
- Nilfouroushan, Faramarz, et al.
(author)
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Thermal-mechanical modeling of salt-based mountain belts with pre-existing basement faults: application to the Zagros fold and thrust belt, southwest Iran
- 2013
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In: Tectonics. - : American Geophysical Union (AGU). - 0278-7407 .- 1944-9194. ; 32:5, s. 1212-1226
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Two-dimensional thermal-mechanical models of thick-skinned, salt-based fold and thrust belts, such as the Zagros, SW Iran, are used to address: 1) the degree of deformation and decoupling between cover and basement rocks due to the presence of a weak salt detachment; 2) the reactivation potential of pre-existing basement normal faults due to brittle or ductile behavior of the lower crust (as related to cold or hot geothermal gradients); and 3) variations in deformation style and strain distribution. The geometry and kinematics of the orogenic wedge and the activity of pre-existing basement faults are strongly influenced by the geothermal gradient (defined by the Moho temperature, MT) and basement rheology. We infer that the MT plays a major role in how the lower and upper crust transfer deformation towards the foreland. In relatively hot geotherm models (MT = 600°C at 36 km depth), the lowermost basement deforms in a ductile fashion while the uppermost basement underlying the sedimentary cover deforms by folding, thrusting, and displacements along pre-existing basement faults. In these models, cover units above the salt detachment occur within a less deformed, wide plateau in the hinterland. In relatively cold geotherm models (MT = 400°C at 36 km depth), deformation is mainly restricted to basement imbricate thrusts that form within the orogenic hinterland. Detachment folding, thrusting and gravity gliding occur within cover sediments above uplifted basement blocks. Gravity gliding contributes to a larger amount of shortening in the cover compared to the basement.
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| 7. |
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Geodetic horizontal velocity and strain rate fields around Lake Vänern (SW Sweden) derived from GPS measurements between 1997 and 2011
- 2012
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Editorial proceedings (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In 1989, the Värmland GPS network consisting of 8 stations spaced an average of 60 km apart was setup to monitor the ongoing deformation in and around Lake Vänern due to tectonic and mainly Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) processes in Fennoscandia. This network covers an area of about 10000 km2, straddles the Protogine and the Mylonite zones and includes one of the most active seismic zones of Sweden. We use GAMIT-GLOBK software to process the past GPS data, collected in October 1997, the only campaign that was measured with choke ring antenna, and the new GPS measurements in October 2010 and 2011 to estimate station velocities. We also integrate our local network with the SWEPOS (Swedish Permanent GPS network) and IGS (International GNSS Service) stations to better constrain the velocity fields in ITRF2008 and Eurasia-fixed reference frames. Since the rates of horizontal movements are very slow (less than 1 mm/year), our measurements in longer time spans (at least in 13 years, between 1997 to 2010, 2011 and planned 2012) better resolve the tectonic signal from the noise. Preliminary results obtained from campaign-mode measurements in 1997, 2010 and 2011 agree well with those reported in the latest study by Lidberg et al. (2010) who used the data from permanent GPS stations of the BIFROST (Baseline Inferences for Fennoscandian Rebound Observations Sea Level and Tectonics) project. Strain-rate analysis resulting from the obtained velocities illustrates the overall extensional component trending NW-SE with local variations. Adding more campaigns in 2012 and 2013 will surely increase the reliability of our analysis. The velocity field obtained from this research will add more details to the tectonic picture generated by BIFROST. The results are also relevant to GIA modeling, geodetic vs. seismic strain accumulation, waste isolation and seismic hazards.
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| 8. |
- Liu, Zhina, et al.
(author)
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Internal deformation within an unstable granular slope : insights from physical modeling
- 2012
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The collapses of granular materials frequently occur in nature in the form of, for example, rock avalanches, debrisavalanches and debris flow. In previous studies of collapses of a granular material, most of the focus has been onthe effect of initial geometry and mechanical properties of the granular materials, the run-out distance, and thetopography of final deposit. In this study, results of analogue models and scanned natural failed slopes are usedto outline the mode of failure of an unstable slope. Model results and field observations are used to argue that agranular mass moves downslope in a wavy pattern resulting in its intensive deformation.In the models, we mainly investigated the internal deformation of collapses of granular slopes in terms of theirinternal structures and the spatial and temporal distribution of the latter. Model results showed that a displacedmass of the granular slope has the following two features: (1) Initial collapse resulted in a series of normal faults,where hanging-wall blocks were slightly deformed, like the slump-shear structures in nature; (2) With furthercollapse, a set of secondary structures, such as deformed/folded fault surfaces, faulted folds, displaced inclinedfolds, and overturned folds formed near the slope surface. The occurrence of these structures reflects the failureprocess of the granular mass in space and time. In addition, our model results show that the nature of basal frictionhas a significant influence on the geometry and kinematics of these structures at the slope toe. Model results showalso that the mass does not glide downslope along only one surface, but includes several gliding surfaces each ofwhich take part of the sliding. These gliding surfaces become steeper deeper in the sliding mass. Some of thesefeatures observed in the models are also detected in the field. Scanned failed slope surfaces show a wavy patternsimilar to that in the models, reflecting the presence of normal faults at the head of the slope and folding at theslope toe.
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| 9. |
- Nilfouroushan, Faramarz, 1968-
(author)
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Ground Movements in the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt of SW Iran Measured by GPS and InSAR Compared to Physical Models
- 2007
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This thesis uses geodetic satellite data to measure present-day crustal deformation in the Zagros fold-thrust belt (SW Iran). Geodetic-type measurements are also used in down-scaled models that simulate the surface deformations seen in convergent settings like the Zagros fold-thrust belt.Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of three surveys between 1998 and 2001 indicate 9 ± 3 mm/yr and 5 ± 3 mm/yr shortening across the SE and NW Zagros respectively. GPS results show that in addition to the different rates and directions of shortening on either side of the NS trending Kazerun fault, local along-belt extension occurs to the east.Differential SAR interferograms of ERS1 & 2 images between 1992 and 1999 detect 8 ± 4 mm/yr uplift rate across a newly recognized fault in SW Qeshm Island. This can be attributed to a steep imbricate thrust that may still represent the local Zagros deformation front.The salt diapirs in the Zagros rise from a source layer that acts as a low-frictional decollement that decouples the deformation of the cover sediments from their basement in the eastern Zagros whereas the cover to the west deforms above a high-friction decollement. Physical models were prepared to simulate cover deformation in the Zagros by shortening a sand pack above adjacent high- and low-frictional decollements (represented by a ductile layer). The strain distributions differed above the two types of decollements; it was more heterogeneous above the salt where local extension in the shortening direction was dominant. A separate work also investigated systematically the role of basal friction on cover deformation in convergent settings. Accurate height measurements of the model surface by laser-scanner indicated a deformation front more distal than usual, particularly in the low-basal frictional models. The volume reduction in our shortened sand models correlated directly with their basal friction.
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| 10. |
- Pease, Victoria, et al.
(author)
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Development of the Amerasia Basin: Insights from analogue modeling
- 2018
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The tectonic development of the Amerasia Basin and its sub‐domains (the Canada Basin, the Makarov‐Povodnikov basins, the Alpha‐Mendeleev Ridges, and the Chukchi Plateau) has long been debated. Recent studies confirm the conjugate relationship between the Alaskan and Canadian Arctic margins, in which counterclockwise rotation of Arctic Alaska from Arctic Canada resulted in the opening of the Canada Basin; although the northward extent of this spreading is debated, the tectonic development of the Canada Basin is ‘broadly’ understood. The precise timing and the role of the Chukchi Plateau is also problematic. In a series of two‐plate analogue models with properties homologous of homogeneous continental crust, we were able to model the development of the Amerasia basin and its sub‐domains (those not related to the HALIP). In all models, a triangular (ocean) basin forms between the two ‘diverging’ plates, however, depending on the mode of opening and initial plate configuration transpressive, transtensive, and ‘pure’ strike‐slip structures are generated and account for the following first order observations: i) transcurrent margins of opposite motion, ii) curvature in the fossil ridge, and ii) asymmetry of the basin. In addition, extension and clockwise rotation of the Chukchi Plateau (without compression) is achieved as part of the upper‐plate of a detachment system in which lower‐plate motion exceeds upper‐plate motion. Our results elucidate the development of sea‐floor spreading in the Amerasia Basin and are consistent with a rotational opening scenario.
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