| 1. |
- Martinsson, Olof, et al.
(författare)
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Metallogeny of the Northern Norrbotten Ore Province, northern Fennoscandian Shield with emphasis on IOCG and apatite-iron ore deposits
- 2016
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Ingår i: Ore Geology Reviews. - : Elsevier BV. - 0169-1368 .- 1872-7360. ; 78, s. 447-492
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Northern Norrbotten Ore Province in northernmost Sweden includes the type localities for Kiruna-type apatite iron deposits and has been the focus for intense exploration and research related to Fe oxide-Cu-Au mineralisation during the last decades. Several different types of Fe-oxide and Cu-Au +/- Fe oxide mineralisation occur in the region and include: stratiform Cu +/- Zn +/- Pb +/- Fe oxide type, iron formations (including BIF's), Kiruna-type apatite iron ore, and epigenetic Cu +/- Au +/- Fe oxide type which may be further subdivided into different styles of mineralisation, some of them with typical IOCG (Iron Oxide-Copper-Gold) characteristics. Generally, the formation of Fe oxide +/- Cu +/- Au mineralisation is directly or indirectly dated'between-2.1 and 1.75 Ga, thus spanning about 350 m.y. of geological evolution. The current paper will present in more detail the characteristics of certain key deposits, and aims to put the global concepts of Fe-oxide Cu-Au mineralisation into a regional context. The focus will be on iron deposits and various types of deposits containing Fe-oxides and Cu-sulphides in different proportions which generally have some characteristics in common with the IOCG style. In particular, ore fluid characteristics (magmatic versus non magmatic) and new geochronological data are used to link the ore-forming processes with the overall crustal evolution to generate a metallogenetic model. Rift bounded shallow marine basins developed at similar to 2.1-2.0 Ga following a long period of extensional tectonics within the Greenstone-dominated, 2.5-2.0 Ga Karelian craton. The similar to 1.9-1.8 Ga Svecofennian Orogen is characterised by subduction and accretion from the southwest. An initial emplacement of calc-alkaline magmas into similar to 1.9 Ga continental arcs led to the formation of the Haparanda Suite and the Porphyrite Group volcanic rocks. Following this early stage of magmatic activity, and separated from it by the earliest deformation and metamorphism, more alkali-rich magmas of the Perthite Monzonite Suite and the Kiirunavaara Group volcanic rocks were formed at similar to 1.88 Ga. Subsequently, partial melting of the middle crust produced large volumes of similar to 1.85 and 1.8 Ga S-type granites in conjunction with subduction related A-/I-type magmatism and associated deformation and metamorphism. In our metallogenetic model the ore formation is considered to relate to the geological evolution as follows. Iron formations and a few stratiform sulphide deposits were deposited in relation to exhalative processes in rift bounded marine basins. The iron formations may be sub-divided into BIF-(banded iron formations) and Mg rich types, and at several locations these types grade into each other. There is no direct age evidence to constrain the deposition of iron formations, but stable isotope data and stratigraphic correlations suggest a formation within the 2.1-2.0 Ga age range. The major Kiruna-type ores formed from an iron-rich magma (generally with a hydrothermal over-print) and are restricted to areas occupied by volcanic rocks of the Kiirunavaara Group. It is suggested here that 1.89-1.88 Ga tholeiitic magmas underwent magma liquid immiscibility reactions during fractionation and interaction with crustal rocks, including metaevaporites, generating more felsic magmatic rocks and Kiruna-type iron deposits. A second generation of this ore type, with a minor economic importance, appears to have been formed about 100 Ma later. The epigenetic Cu-Au +/- Fe oxide mineralisation formed during two stages of the Svecofennian evolution in association with magmatic and metamorphic events and crustal scale shear zones. During the first stage of mineralisation, from 1.89-1.88 Ga, intrusion-related (porphyry style) mineralisation and Cu-Au deposits of IOCG affinity formed from magmatic-hydrothermal systems, whereas vein-style and shear zone deposits largely formed at c. 1.78 Ga. The large range of different Fe oxide and Cu-Au +/- Fe oxide deposits in Northern Norrbotten is associated with various alteration systems, involving e.g. scapolite, albite, K feldspar, biotite, carbonates, tourmaline and sericite. However, among the apatite iron ores and the epigenetic Cu-Au +/- Fe oxide deposits the character of mineralisation, type of ore- and alteration minerals and metal associations are partly controlled by stratigraphic position (i.e. depth of emplacement). Highly saline, NaCl + CaCl2 dominated fluids, commonly also including a CO2-rich population, appear to be a common characteristic feature irrespective of type and age of deposits. Thus, fluids with similar characteristics appear to have been active during quite different stages of the geological evolution. Ore fluids related to epigenetic Cu-Au Fe oxides display a trend with decreasing salinity, which probably was caused by mixing with meteoric water. Tentatively, this can be linked to different Cu-Au ore paragenesis, including an initial (magnetite)-pyrite-chalcopyrite stage, a main chalcopyrite stage, and a late bornite stage. Based on the anion composition and the Br/Cl ratio of ore related fluids bittern brines and metaevaporites (including scapolite) seem to be important sources to the high salinity hydrothermal systems generating most of the deposits in Norrbotten. Depending on local conditions and position in the crust these fluids generated a variety of Cu-Au deposits. These include typical IOCG-deposits (Fe-oxides and Cu-Au are part of the same process), IOCG of iron stone type (pre-existing Fe-oxide deposit with later addition of Cu-Au), IOCG of reduced type (lacking Fe-oxides due to local reducing conditions) and vein-style Cu-Au deposits. From a strict genetic point of view, IOCG deposits that formed from fluids of a mainly magmatic origin should be considered to be a different type than those deposits associated with mainly non-magmatic fluids. The former tend to overlap with porphyry systems, whereas those of a mainly non-magmatic origin overlap with sediment hosted Cu-deposits with respect to their origin and character of the ore fluids.
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| 2. |
- Bauer, Tobias, et al.
(författare)
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Geological multi-scale modelling as a tool for modern ore exploration in the Skellefte mining district, Sweden
- 2011
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Ingår i: Proceedings IAMG 2011 Salzburg. - : cogeo@oeaw-giscience. ; , s. 759-
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The Palaeoproterozoic Skellefte Mining District is host to abundant ore deposits. Geological 3Dmodelling was performed using the gOcad software platform. Geological methods such as field mapping, structural analysis and facies analysis combined with geophysical techniques such as reflection seismic investigations, resistivity, magnetic, electromagnetic and gravimetric studies and analysis of potential field data provide a framework for the reconstruction of the crustal geometry and geological history of the district as a tool for modern ore exploration. Results will be furthermore utilized for kinematic 4-dimensional modelling
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| 3. |
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| 4. |
- Malehmir, A., et al.
(författare)
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Seismic imaging in the Skellefte ore district, northern Sweden
- 2005
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Ingår i: 20th World Mining Congress, November 7-11, 2005, Tehran, Iran. - Teheran : Geological Survey of Iran. ; , s. 399-404
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In the western part of the Skellefte ore district, which is the most important metallogenic zone in Northern Sweden, several world class mines, e.g., the Kristineberg VMS mine (20.1mt, Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-Au) are situated. In order to understand why these deposits occur where they do, it is important to understand the crustal architecture of the region. One way to understand the contact relationships between the ore bearing volcanic formations and the surrounding rocks is to develop a detailed 3-D geological model of the region. To establish the structural geologic framework at depth, new seismic reflection data were acquired along two profiles in the Kristineberg area in late August and early September 2003. Data along the two seismic profiles (Profile 1 and Profile 5), each about 25 km long and running in parallel, were collected with the purpose of obtaining high resolution images of the top 10 km of the crust. Although the structural geology is very complex, preliminary stacked sections of the data have revealed numerous reflections which can be correlated with surface geology. Results along Profile 1, which passes on top of the Kristineberg mine show the mine to be located in a major synform extending down to about 2.5-3 km depth. The structure and stratigraphy of the Kristineberg area have been debated for many years. Our seismic results suggest that the deposits occur on the northern limb of a regional syncline. The results help to identify new prospective areas, both down-plunge from known ores, and on the southern limb of the ore-bearing syncline. The results for Profile 5 show that the Revsund granite can have a thickness about 3-3.5 km but not more. Ultramafic rocks are imaged clearly. Diffraction patterns can be interpreted as orienting from either a mafic-ultramafic intrusion or a mineralization zone. A detailed study has to be done in order to determine the source of this reflectivity. In this study seismic reflection profiling has been particularly effective for imaging the major structures around the ore body, demonstrating that the seismic-reflection technique can be used for delineating complex structures that are significant in mineral exploration.
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| 5. |
- Skyttä, Pietari, et al.
(författare)
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Pre-1.87 Ga development of crustal domains overprinted by 1.87 Ga transpression in the Palaeoproterozoic Skellefte district, Sweden
- 2012
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Ingår i: Precambrian Research. - : Elsevier BV. - 0301-9268 .- 1872-7433. ; 206–207, s. 109-136
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The complex structural evolution within the VMS-hosting Skellefte district, Sweden, has been investigated to provide a solid structural framework for the known mineral deposits in the area. The area occurs in a transition zone between dominantly N-S to NNE-WSW striking structures in the north and approximately WNW-ESE oriented structural trends in the south. The presence of high-strain zones with both the above orientations in the Skellefte district allows constraining their mutual relationship, as well as their significance for the build-up of the Svecokarelian orogen at around 1.89 Ga and for the following tectonic overprint between 1.87-1.80 Ga. The methods used in this study include structural analysis complemented by potential field modelling and SIMS U-Pb geochronology on zircon. Based on the results of this study, the earliest deformation (D1) is constrained at 1.89–1.88 (1.87) Ga and tentatively attributed to crustal extension occurring synchronously with volcanism. Deposition of the Skellefte Group metavolcanic rocks is inferred to have occurred in a pull-apart basin developed due to dextral strike-slip shearing along approximately N-S striking regional-scale shear zones. Variations in the development of deformation fabric across the district indicate that the crust was divided into an upper, un-metamorphosed domain and a lower, strongly metamorphosed domain during D1. We further infer that the transition from the upper to lower crust was locally coupled with development of low-angle crustal-scale detachment zones during D1. The heterogenous crust was subsequently overprinted by transpressional deformation which may be explained by two alternative models. According to the first model, one single SSE-NNW transpressional event with distinct strain partitioning between the coaxially deformed upper crust and the non-coaxially deformed lower crust is largely responsible for the present-day structural geometry. A post-folding rhyolite dyke, here dated at 1871 ± 4 Ma, constrains the minimum age of this event (D2). The alternative model includes two separate transpressional events: a SW-NE one at (1.88-) 1.87 Ga, followed by SSE-NNW transpression at 1.86 Ga. Recognition of the early-orogenic detachment zones allow us to suggest that many of the major crustal-scale shear zones in the central Fennoscandian Shield have originated as 1.89-1.87 Ga crustal detachment zones, i.e. earlier than typically considered.
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| 6. |
- Tavakoli, Saman, et al.
(författare)
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Regional-scale geometry of the central Skellefte district, northern Sweden : results from 2.5D potential field modeling along three previously acquired seismic profiles
- 2012
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Ingår i: Journal of Applied Geophysics. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-9851 .- 1879-1859. ; 85, s. 43-58
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Skellefte district in northern Sweden is one of the most important mining districts in Europe hosting approximately 80 volcanic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. Due to its economical importance, geological and geophysical studies were carried out in order to create an image of the geometry of the upper crustal structure and integral geological elements and to evaluate their relationship to mineral deposits. Consequently, seismic reflection data along three sub-parallel profiles were acquired during 2009–2010 to map the spatial relationships between the geological structures down to a depth of ~4.5 km. Although these seismic studies helped researchers understand the regional relationship between geologic units in the central Skellefte district (CSD), the seismic reflection data did not succeed entirely in mapping the lithological contacts in the area. In this study, themodel derived fromthe seismic reflection datawas examined by using 2.5D modeling of potential field data (down to a 5 km depth) constrained by physical properties of the rocks and surface geology.Moreover, we modeled gravity and magnetic data along the non-reflective or poorly reflective parts of the seismic profiles to identify major lithological contacts and shear zones in the CSD, which could not be modeled on the basis of the seismic reflection data. Gravity and magnetic data helped reveal the spatial relationship between the Skellefte volcanic rocks, Vargfors groupmeta-sedimentary rocks and two metaintrusive complexes.Results suggest amaximum depth extent of 2.1 kmfor the tectonic contact at the southern border of the Jörn granitoid. Furthermore, this north-dipping Skellefte–Jörn contact coincides closely with magnetic lows and gravity highs, which implies that the Jörn intrusive rocks have a greater thickness than the underlying basalt. Further to the NW, gravity and magnetic data suggest a depth extent of 2 km for the Gallejaur complex, which coincides with a set of gently dipping reflectors. In addition, this study supports previous concepts of fault geometries and fault patterns as a result of upper-crustal extension and subsequent inversion during crustal shortening. In the final model interpretations of the IP data were included, thus relating indications of mineralization to the geological structures.
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| 7. |
- Bauer, Tobias, et al.
(författare)
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3D-modelling of the Central Skellefte District, Sweden
- 2009
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Ingår i: Smart science for exploration and mining. - : James Cook University of North Queensland. - 9780980558685
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The central part of the Palaeoproterozoic Skellefte District in northern Sweden is host to several VMS deposits. This area is dominated by upright folds with axial surfaces trending WNW - ESE. Northeast - SW trending faults crosscut WNW - ESE trending faults and impart a distinct fault pattern. Subvertical stretching as expressed by subvertical mineral lineations as well as gently W-plunging mineral lineations parallel to the F2 fold axes indicate not only significant vertical movement, but also pronounced lateral movement. The faults formed in an extensional stage and were reactivated during a compressional stage oblique to the earlier phase. This crustal shortening caused folding and development of the main foliation. Overturned, tight to isoclinal folds within the Vargfors meta-sediments coincide with 1st and 2nd order faults and are considered to be related to reactivation of the early normal and transfer faults. A three dimensional model taking into account the structures was constructed using the GoCAD 3D-modelling software.
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| 8. |
- Bauer, Tobias, et al.
(författare)
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Correlation between distribution and shape of VMS deposits, and regional deformation patterns, Skellefte district, northern Sweden
- 2014
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Ingår i: Mineralium Deposita. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0026-4598 .- 1432-1866. ; 49:5, s. 555-573
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Skellefte district in northern Sweden is host to abundant volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits comprising pyritic, massive, semi-massive and disseminated Zn–Cu–Au ± Pb ores surrounded by disseminated pyrite and with or without stockwork mineralisation. The VMS deposits are associated with Palaeoproterozoic upper crustal extension (D1) that resulted in the development of normal faults and related transfer faults. The VMS ores formed as sub-seafloor replacement in both felsic volcaniclastic and sedimentary rocks and partly as exhalative deposits within the uppermost part of the volcanic stratigraphy. Subsequently, the district was subjected to deformation (D2) during crustal shortening. Comparing the distribution of VMS deposits with the regional fault pattern reveals a close spatial relationship of VMS deposits to the faults that formed during crustal extension (D1) utilising the syn-extensional faults as fluid conduits. Analysing the shape and orientation of VMS ore bodies shows how their deformation pattern mimics those of the hosting structures and results from the overprinting D2 deformation. Furthermore, regional structural transitions are imitated in the deformation patterns of the ore bodies. Plotting the aspect ratios of VMS ore bodies and the comparison with undeformed equivalents in the Hokuroko district, Japan allow an estimation of apparent strain and show correlation with the D2 deformation intensity of the certain structural domains. A comparison of the size of VMS deposits with their location shows that the smallest deposits are not related to known high-strain zones and the largest deposits are associated with regional-scale high-strain zones. The comparison of distribution and size with the pattern of high-strain zones provides an important tool for regional-scale mineral exploration in the Skellefte district, whereas the analysis of ore body shape and orientation can aid near-mine exploration activities.
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| 9. |
- Bauer, Tobias, et al.
(författare)
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Crustal Scale Shear Zones Controlling Grade and Tonnage of VMS Deposits in the Skellefte District, Northern Sweden
- 2015
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Ingår i: Mineral Resources in a Sustainable World. - 9782855550664 ; , s. 45-48
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Skellefte district in northern Sweden hosts abundant Paleoproterozoic, volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. The deposits formed due to pull apart basin formation in a volcanic arc setting and utilized the syn-extensional faults as fluid conduits. By comparing the structural setting in distinct structural domains with the tonnage and Cu, Au, and Ag grades a clear coupling between VMS deposits and the size of structures becomes evident. This shows how major crustal fault zones acted as fluid conduits for the ore forming hydrothermal fluids during an extensional phase. The same structures were subsequently re-activated as shear zones and possibly enhanced secondary enrichment processes.
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| 10. |
- Bauer, Tobias, et al.
(författare)
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Fault-controlled sedimentation in a progressively opening extensional basin : the Palaeoproterozoic Vargfors basin, Skellefte mining district, Sweden.
- 2013
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Ingår i: International journal of earth sciences. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1437-3254 .- 1437-3262. ; 102:2, s. 385-400
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Vargfors basin in the central part of the Skellefte mining district is an inverted sedimentary basin within a Palaeoproterozoic (1. 89 Ga) marine volcanic arc. The fault-segmented basin formed from upper-crustal extension and subsequent compression, following a period of intense sub-marine volcanism and VMS ore formation. New detailed mapping reveals variations in stratigraphy attributed to syn-extensional sedimentation, as well as provenance of conglomerate clasts associated with tectonic activity at the transition from extension to compression. The onset of fan delta to alluvial fan sedimentation associated with basin subsidence indicates that significant dip-slip displacement accommodating rapid uplift of the intrusive complex and/or subsidence of the adjacent volcano-sedimentary domain took place along a major fault zone at the southern margin of the intrusive complex. Subsidence of the Jörn intrusive complex and/or its burial by sedimentary units caused a break in erosion of the intrusion and favoured the deposition of a tonalite clast-barren conglomerate. Clast compositions of conglomerates show that the syn-extensional deposits become younger in the south-eastern parts of the basin, indicating that opening of the basin progressed from north-west to south-east. Subsequent basin inversion, associated with the accretion to the Karelian margin, involved reverse activation of the normal faults and development of related upright synclines. Progressive crustal shortening caused the formation of break-back faults accompanied by mafic volcanic activity that particularly affected the southern contact of the Jörn intrusive complex and the northern contact of the Vargfors basin
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