| 1. |
- Andersson, Karin, 1952
(author)
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Environmental management
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 257-263
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- To ensure environmental performance at a desired level in a company, an understanding of the potential impacts and their sources and a work structure that promotes the desired outcome are necessary. Policies and strategies must be known and accepted in the company, and the organisational structure must be able to handle the challenges. Environmental management systems provide a means to manage the work process as well as communicate the company's environmental policy, goals and work processes. The majority of this book addresses impacts and their sources and technical solutions to counteract these impacts. In this chapter, the management of environmental work is discussed.
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| 2. |
- Andersson, Karin, 1952, et al.
(author)
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Methods and Tools for Environmental Assessment.
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation; Andersson, K., Brynolf, S., Lindgren, F.J. & Wilewska-Bien (eds.).. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 265-293
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Selecting measures to reduce the overall environmental impact associated with shipping can be a difficult task, and a systematic approach is needed. There is risk of sub-optimisation and counteraction of different measures with one another if decisions are made based on fragmented decision support. An example of a system effect is the long lifetime of ships, which slows the introduction of new technologies. Therefore, design and retrofits must fulfil not only present but also future requirements for environmental sustainability. This chapter describes the basic details of several methods and tools that can be used in environmental assessments within the shipping industry. The methods and tools described are grouped into three categories: (1) procedural tools, (2) analytical tools and (3) aggregated tools. Examples of procedural tools are environmental impact assessment, multi-criteria decision analysis and risk management; life cycle assessment (LCA) and environmental risk assessment are examples of analytical tools. Aggregated tools include indicators, indices, and footprints.
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| 3. |
- Andersson, Karin, 1952, et al.
(author)
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Shipping and the environment
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 3-27
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Humans have always had a close relationship with the aquatic environment, including the early use of the sea for food harvesting and communication. Today, the sea is an important component of the transportation system, with large amounts of cargo and passengers. This chapter provides a short introduction to ships and shipping, focussing primarily on commercial ships; nonetheless, many of the emissions, impacts and measures discussed throughout this book are common to other sectors, such as leisure, research and fishing. This chapter also introduces the environmental impacts related to ship operations. Ship transportation has increased tremendously since the industrial revolution, which has resulted in increased emissions due to shipping and increased stresses on the environment. However, this trend is not only related to shipping. Currently, there are several warning signs that we are not taking care of the Earth and its ecosystem in a sustainable manner, that the Earth's ecosystems are degrading and that natural capital is being exploited, e.g., by the burning of fossil fuels. The marine industry is a component of our society; similar to all industry sectors, it contributes to unsustainable patterns in our society. Although the marine industry is a contributor to these problems, it can also be part of the solution, yet several challenges must be addressed. Sustainability and related concepts, such as ecosystem services, planetary boundaries and resilience thinking, could be used as guidance in addressing these challenges. Humans have always had a close relationship with the aquatic environment. Indeed, a scientific discussion debates whether the first humans evolved in a dry land environment, on the savannah, or in shallow water environments (as the "water man" or "aquatic ape") [1]. With respect to environmental awareness, the sea has come into focus relatively late compared with other natural areas. Independent of this observation, the sea has served as an important transportation route and a source of food and recreation throughout history. In a world where more than 70 % of the surface is covered by oceans, our interaction with and dependence on the sea in numerous aspects is obvious.
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| 4. |
- Brynolf, Selma, 1984, et al.
(author)
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Energy efficiency and fuel changes to reduce environmental impacts
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 295-339
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Many different emissions from ships are directly related to a ship's fuel consumption. This is particularly true for emissions to air, which are generated during the combustion process in the engines. Hence, improving the conversion process from fuel energy to transport work can be an effective means of reducing ship emissions. Solutions for reducing ship fuel consumption are generally divided into design and operational measures. Design measures primarily include technical solutions implemented when the ship is designed, constructed, and retrofitted, such as weightreduction, hull coatings, air lubrication, improvement of hull design, optimal propulsion systems and harvesting waste energy. Operational measures are related to how the ship or the fleet is operated and include measures such as weather routing, optimal ship scheduling, improved ship logistics, and on-board energy management. Although reducing fuel consumption always generates an environmental benefit, it should be noted that the use of different fuels results in different impacts on the environment for a given energy conversion efficiency. Another way to reduce emissions is therefore related to the type of fuel used on a ship, e.g., diesel fuels, gases, alcohols and solid fuels. However, choosing a fuel is not an easy process because it is influenced by a broad range of criteria, including technical, environmenta l and economic criteria.
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| 5. |
- Brynolf, Selma, 1984, et al.
(author)
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Improving environmental performance in shipping
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 399-418
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This book addresses the environmental issues related to shipping and the natural environment, including descriptions of and proposed solutions to the issues. Currently, challenges exist that must be addressed if shipping is to become sustainable and fulfil the zero vision of no harmful emissions to the environment. In this chapter, we evaluate the steps that have been taken (if any) to limit the various environmental issues and discuss possible steps to be taken to improve environmental performance. Furthermore, future challenges must also be addressed, e.g., the current trend of increasing ship operations in the Arctic. In general, three factors could be addressed in order to reach environmentally sustainable shipping: regulations, technical solutions, and increased environmental awareness. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016. All rights are reserved.
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| 6. |
- Lindgren, Fredrik, 1979, et al.
(author)
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Anthropogenic noise
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 229-235
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- All rights are reserved. Anthropogenic noise is an issue that originates both from ships and the infrastructure that supports them, i.e., ports. Noise pollution is a known issue that can affect both humans and marine organisms. Humans are affected when ports, which are often active throughout the day and night, are located near residential areas in a city. Marine organisms are affected when noise from various activities of the shipping industry is transferred into the water. Four main sources of anthropogenic noise are generally recognised: underwater explosions, seismic explorations with high-energy systems, active sonar systems and shipping. The primary concerns regarding organisms exposed to elevated levels of anthropogenic noise include permanent or temporary hearing loss, the masking of a desired signal, and behavioural changes in response to a sound. Noise generated in port areas can affect both the staff working at the port and the neighbouring areas. Several negative health effects of noise pollution have been identified, for example, hearing and cardio-vascular disturbances, increased blood pressure, annoyance and sleep disturbance.
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| 7. |
- Lindgren, Fredrik, 1979, et al.
(author)
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Discharges to the sea
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 125-168
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- In this chapter, various environmental issues from the shipping industry which ends up in the oceans are described. Oil pollution, wastewater, antifouling paint, ballast water and litter are all described in detail. Various sources of oil pollution exist, ranging from large accidents to small continuous leakages from, e.g., propeller shaft bearings. The behaviour of oil when it enters the sea can differ, ultimately affecting the environment. Wastewater from ships is divided into sewage and grey water, and different regulations can affect their characteristics. Fouling on ship hulls affects the drag on the ship, which increases fuel consumption when maintaining a constant speed. The various antifouling paints used today to combat fouling are described herein, and a review of the environmental implications of using these paints is provided. Ballast water contains organisms that can become invasive if released into a new geographical area. Invasive species can entail costs on the order of millions of euros. Finally, litter is discussed in this chapter. Litter is deposited in the ocean via several sources and can affect organisms over long periods of time. Plastic causes the largest litter-related problem because it does not biodegrade; such material only becomes smaller, ultimately reaching a microplastic state. Henee, litter can affect organisms in different ways.
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| 8. |
- Lindgren, Fredrik, 1979, et al.
(author)
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Marine Spatial Planning and Shipwrecks
- 2016
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In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation; Andersson, K., Brynolf, S., Lindgren, F.J. & Wilewska-Bien (eds.).. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 237-253
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016. All rights are reserved. In association to the shipping industry there is a broad infrastructure that is connected with multiple activities, e.g., transportation, building and recycling. This infrastructure services the industry, for example ports, and its connected transport network, fairways and canals. The infrastructure activities also entail various environmental issues, such as land use, air emissions, noise, erosion and increased water turbidity. From an environmental perspective, ships have different impacts during the various phases of their lifetimes. Building ships is a highly energy demanding process, and various environmental issues are connected to ship yards. Moreover, when ships are scrapped, the workers typically work under very crude conditions, and often no environmental concern is exercised. To facilitate the effective use of ocean near-shore areas and avoid conflicts among stakeholders, marine spatial planning (MSP) can be applied. Marine spatial planning is a process that views a system and its potential usages from both spatial and temporal perspectives and can facilitate the implementation of ecosystem-based management plans, avoiding conflicts and creating opportunities between various actors in the area. This concept is now being introduced in many countries. Shipwrecks represent a hidden problem that must be addressed. Several thousand shipwrecks litter the ocean floor, containing massive amounts of oil and other toxic chemicals.
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| 9. |
- Lindgren, Fredrik, 1979, et al.
(author)
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The natural environment and human impacts
- 2016
-
In: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 29-74
-
Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- To comprehend the implications of the various environmental issues that man is inducing on the Earth (with a focus on the shipping industry), an understanding of the Earth's major systems is necessary. The natural environment, which consists of air, water, land and living organisms, is a dynamic system in which material and energy are exchanged within and between the individual components. The system is divided into four spheres (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphère), and fluxes of energy and material are exchanged amongst these spheres. The spheres also largely govern the fate of various environmental problems originating from the shipping industry. Therefore, background information related to these spheres is provided, and their major properties and implications are explained. Regarding the atmosphere, radiation and energy budgets are explained in conjunction with the weather and climate. Concerning the hydrosphere, oceanography is introduced together with marine ecology. Addressing the geosphere, the elements in the Earth's crust and mineral commodities are discussed. Regarding the biosphere, energy is transferred through food chains; the differences between life in water and life on land are examined. Energy flows through and is stored in these spheres; this stored energy is essential to the natural environment and human society. The different primary energy sources are described and divided into non-renewable and renewable sources. Finally, an introduction to human impacts on the natural environment and to major environmental issues is provided.
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| 10. |
- Linné, Philip, 1982, et al.
(author)
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Regulating Pollution from Ships
- 2016
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In: Andersson, K. et al (Eds). Shipping and the Environment - Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 75-121
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This chapter begins with a short history of the regulation of ship operations including the regulation of pollution from ships, and then proceeds to its main focus of explaining the basic international legal framework for regulating pollution from ships, the main actors involved in the international regulatory process, and the process of creating environmental regulations for ships via the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The regulation of ship operations has a long history, although the specific regulation of pollution from ships is a relatively recent phenomenon. Over the course of history, the freedom to use the seas in various ways (the principle of freedom) has been balanced by the interests of sovereign States (the principle of sovereignty). As is demonstrated in this chapter, to explain the regulation of pollution from ships at the international regulatory level, a basic understanding of international law and international law of the sea is necessary. However, the regulation of the pollution from ships should also be viewed as a result of negotiations among States with different interests and with different economic and environmental conditions. In this regard, two divisions can be helpful in understanding how the international instruments that regulate pollution from ships are created via IMO: the first is between coastal States, flag States and States with maritime interests, and the second is between developed States and developing states.
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