| 1. |
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| 2. |
- Dalai, Biswajit, 1992-
(author)
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Material characterization of AA7075-T651 deformed at different temperatures and strain rates
- 2021
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Licentiate thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- In this licentiate thesis, the mechanical response and the microstructure evolution in aluminum alloy (AA) 7075 in its T651 heat treated state have been studied through mechanical tests at varied conditions of strain rate and temperature.First, compression tests were performed on AA7075-T651 samples at room temperature (RT), 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 °C (melting temperature of AA7075 is ~635 °C) with two comparatively low strain rates of 0.01 and 1 s-1 using a Gleeble thermo-mechanical simulator. The effects of softening mechanisms, such as adiabatic heating, dynamic recovery (DRV) and dynamic recrystallization (DRX), on the flow stress level, strain rate sensitivity (SRS) and temperature sensitivity were analyzed over the entire range of deformation temperatures. Additionally, the extent of DRX with respect to temperature, strain rate and local strain was demonstrated and explained through electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis.The deformation behavior of AA7075-T651 was then studied at high strain rates in the order of 102-103 s-1 at RT, 200, 300 and 400 °C using a Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) setup complemented with an induction coil. Unlike in case of deformation at low strain rates, the unavailability of sufficient time for the dissipation of heat energy during deformation at high strain rates resulted in the formation of adiabatic shear bands (ASBs). Two types of ASB, namely distorted shear band (DSB) and transformed shear band (TSB) were characterized by their distorted-elongated and ultra-fine grain structures, respectively. A deformation path was established following the evolution of ASBs, micro-voids and micro-cracks leading to the fracture of the material. The effects of strain, strain rate and deformation temperature on the formation of ASBs and cracks were also discussed.
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| 3. |
- Dalai, Biswajit, 1992-, et al.
(author)
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Mechanical behavior and microstructure evolution during deformation of AA7075-T651
- 2021
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In: Materials Science & Engineering. - : Elsevier. - 0921-5093 .- 1873-4936. ; 822
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In view of developing a physics-based constitutive material model for AA7075-T651, the mechanical behavior and microstructure evolution of the material has been studied through compression tests using Gleeble thermo-mechanical simulator. The tests were performed at wide range of temperatures (room temperature (RT), 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 °C) with two constant strain rates (0.01 and 1 s-1). The true stress-strain curves depicted an increase in the flow stress with increase in the strain rate and decrease in the deformation temperature, with an exception at RT. The effects of softening mechanisms, such as adiabatic heating, dissolution of precipitates, dynamic recovery (DRV) and dynamic recrystallisation (DRX), on the flow stress level, strain rate sensitivity (SRS) and temperature sensitivity over the entire range of temperatures were analyzed. Pertaining to the microstructure analysis, the intermetallic particles present in the initial as-received (AR) material were identified as (Al,Cu)6(Fe,Cu) and SiO2 with the help of back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The microstructure of the material after the deformation processes were analyzed and compared with that of the AR state using inverse pole figures (IPF), grain orientation spread (GOS) and grain boundary rotation maps generated from electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) scans. DRV was observed for deformation at 300 °C, whereas a combination of DRV and incomplete DRX took place for 400 and 500 °C depending on the strain rate. The fraction of recrystallized grains was higher in case of deformation at higher temperature and lower strain rate. Furthermore, the difference in microstructure evolution on different surfaces of the deformed samples as well as at different locations on individual surfaces was also investigated.
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| 4. |
- Dalai, Biswajit, 1992-, et al.
(author)
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Mechanical behavior and microstructure evolution during high strain rate deformation of AA7075-T651
- 2022
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In: SN Applied Sciences. - : Springer. - 2523-3963 .- 2523-3971. ; 4:10
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The current study presents the effects of strain and temperature on the mechanical response and microstructure evolution in AA7075-T651 at high strain rates. Compression tests have been performed at room temperature (RT), 200, 300 and 400 °C using a Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) setup with strain rates ranging between 1400 and 5300 s−1. For deformation at RT, the flow stress increases with increase in strain rate. Whereas deformation at elevated temperatures show a non-monotonous behavior of the flow stress with respect to the strain rate. This trait is attributed to the pronounced effects from the adiabatic shear bands (ASBs); namely, distorted shear bands (DSBs) and transformed shear bands (TSBs); and cracks resulting from the plastic deformation instability during hot deformation. The sequence of microstructure evolution is: inhomogeneity in the initial microstructure – DSB – TSB – crack –fracture. The feasibility of formation and growth of ASBs and cracks increases with increase in strain and temperature, neglecting any significant effect from the strain rate. During the compression tests, temperature of the material rises due to adiabatic heating. Considering a certain strain developed in the material, this adiabatic temperature rise decreases as the deformation temperature is increased. Furthermore, during individual deformation processes, the temperature rise increases with increasing strain. The adiabatic temperature leading to the formation of TSB is approximated to be 0.7 times of the melting temperature of the alloy. These results from the current study are to be used in developing a physics-based material model for the alloy.
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| 5. |
- Draxler, Joar, et al.
(author)
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A numerical model for simulating the effect of strain rate on eutectic band thickness
- 2020
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In: Welding in the World. - : Springer. - 0043-2288 .- 1878-6669. ; 64:10, s. 1635-1658
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Large tensile strains acting on the solidifying weld metal can cause the formation of eutectic bands along grain boundaries. These eutectic bands can lead to severe liquation in the partially melted zone of a subsequent overlapping weld. This can increase the risk of heat-affected zone liquation cracking. In this paper, we present a solidification model for modeling eutectic bands. The model is based on solute convection in grain boundary liquid films induced by tensile strains. The proposed model was used to study the influence of strain rate on the thickness of eutectic bands in Alloy 718. It was found that when the magnitude of the strain rate is 10 times larger than that of the solidification rate, the calculated eutectic band thickness is about 200 to 500% larger (depending on the solidification rate) as compared to when the strain rate is zero. In the paper, we also discuss how eutectic bands may form from hot cracks.
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| 6. |
- Draxler, Joar
(author)
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Modeling and Simulation of Weld Hot Cracking
- 2019
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Several alloy systems are susceptible to weld hot cracking. Weld hot cracking occurs by fracture of liquid films, normally grain boundary liquid films, at the late stage of the solidification of the weld. The cracks can be small and therefore difficult to detect by nondestructive test methods. If hot cracks are not repaired, they can act as sites for initiation of fatigue and stress corrosion cracking, which in turn can lead to catastrophic failure in critical applications such as aerospace engines and nuclear power plants. Therefore, it is of highest importance to design weld processes so that hot cracking can be avoided. Here, numerical simulation can be a powerful tool for optimizing weld speed, heat input, weld path geometry, weld path sequences, weld fixturing, etc., such that the risk for hot cracking can be minimized. In this thesis, we propose a modeling approach for simulating weld hot cracking in sheet metals with low welding speeds and fully penetrating welds. These conditions are assumed to give rise to isolated grain boundary liquid films (GBLFs) whose crack susceptibility can be analyzed using one-dimensional models. The work is divided into four journal papers. The three first papers treat hot cracking that occurs in the fusion zone of the weld while the last paper treats hot cracking in the partially melted zone of the weld. The main content of the four papers are summarized below. In paper A, a pore-based crack criterion for hot cracking has been developed. This criterion states that cracking occurs in a GBLF if the liquid pressure in the film goes below a fracture pressure. The fracture pressure is determined from a pore model as the liquid pressure that is required to balance the surface tension of an axisymmetric pore in a liquid film located between two parallel plates at a given critical pore radius. The fracture pressure depends on the surface tension, the spacing between the parallel plates and the gas concentration in the liquid. In order to evaluate the above pore-based crack criterion in a GBLF the liquid pressure in the film most be known. In paper B, a one-dimensional GBLF pressure model for a columnar dendritic microstructure has been developed. This model is based on a combination of Poiseuille parallel plate flow and Darcy porous flow. Flow induced by mechanical straining of the GBLF is accounted for by a macroscopic mechanical strain field that is localized to the GBLF by a temperature dependent length scale. In paper C, a computational welding mechanics model for a Varestraint test is developed. The model is used to calibrate the crack criterion in paper A and the pressure model in paper B. It is then used to test the crack criterion in Varestraint tests with different augmented strains. Calculated crack locations, orientations, and widths are shown to correlate well to the experimental Varestraint tests. vii Finally, in paper D, a segregation model for predicting the thickness of eutectic bands has been developed. The thickness of eutectic bands affects the degree of liquation in partially melted zone, and therefore is an important factor for hot cracking in this region of the weld.
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| 7. |
- Edin, Emil
(author)
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Effect of Stress Relief Annealing: Part Distortion, Mechanical Properties, and Microstructure of Additively Manufactured Austenitic Stainless Steel
- 2022
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Licentiate thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Additive manufacturing (AM) processes may introduce large residual stresses in the as-built part, in particular the laser powder bed fusion process (L-PBF). The residual stress state is an inherent consequence of the heterogeneous heating and subsequent cooling during the process. L-PBF has become renowned for its “free complexity” and rapid prototyping capabilities. However, it is vital to ensure shape stability after the component is removed from the build plate, which can be problematic due to the residual stress inducing nature of this manufacturing process. Residual stresses can be analyzed via many different characterization routes (e.g. X-ray and neutron diffraction, hole drilling, etc.), both quantitatively and qualitatively. From an industrial perspective, most of these techniques are either prohibitively expensive, complex or too slow to be implementable during the early prototyping stages of AM manufacturing.In this work a deformation based method employing a specific geometry, a so called “keyhole”-geometry, has been investigated to qualitatively evaluate the effect of different stress relief annealing routes with respect to macroscopic part deformation, mechanical properties and microstructure. Previous published work has focused on structures with open geometry, commonly referred to as bridge-like structures where the deformation required for analysis occurs during removal from the build plate. The proposed keyhole-geometry can be removed from the build plate without releasing the residual stresses required for subsequent measurement, which enables bulk manufacturing on single build plates, prior to removal and stress relief annealing. Two L-PBF manufactured austenitic stainless steel alloys were studied, 316L and 21-6-9. Tensile specimen blanks were manufactured and the subsequent heat treatments were carried out in pairs of keyhole and tensile blank. Both a contact (micrometer measurement), and a non-contact (optical profilometry) method were employed to measure the residual stress induced deformation in the keyholes. The annealing heat treatment matrix was iteratively expanded with input from the deformation analysis to find the lowest temperature at which approximately zero deformation remained after opening the structure via wire electrical discharge machining. The lowest allowable annealing temperature was sought after to minimize strength loss. After stress relief annealing at 900 ℃ for 1 hour, the 316L keyhole-geometry was considered shape stable. The lateral micrometer measurement yielded a length change of 1 µm, and a radius of 140 m (over the 22 mm top surface) was assigned from curve fitting the top surface height profiles. The complementary microstructural characterization revealed that this temperature corresponded to where the last remains of the cellular sub-grain structures disappears. Tensile testing showed that the specimen subjected to the 900 ℃ heat treatment had a marked reduction in yield stress (YS) compared to that of the as-built: 540 MPa → 402 MPa, whereas ultimate tensile strength (UTS) only reduced slightly: 595 MPa → 570 MPa. The ductility (4D elongation) was found to be ~13 % higher for the specimen heat treated at 900 ℃ than that of the as-built specimen, 76% and 67% respectively. For alloy 21-6-9 the residual stress induced deformation minimum (zero measurable deformation) was found after stress relief heat treatment at 850 ℃ for 1 hour. Slight changes in the microstructure were observable through light optical microscopy when comparing the different heat treatment temperatures. The characteristic sub-grain features associated with alloy 316L were not verified for alloy 21-6-9. Similar to the results for 316L, UTS was slightly lower for the tensile specimen subjected to the heat treatment temperature required for shape stability (850 ℃) compared to the as-built specimen: 810 MPa → 775 MPa. The measured ductility (4D elongation) was found to be approximately equal for the as-built (47%), and heat treated (48%) specimen. As-built material exhibited a YS of 640 MPa while the heat treated specimen had a YS of 540 MPa. For alloy 21-6-9, the lateral micrometer deformation measurements were compared with stress relaxation testing performed at 600 ℃, 700℃ and 800 ℃. Stress relaxation results were in good agreement with the results from the lateral deformation measurements. The study showed that for both steel alloys, the keyhole method could be successfully employed to rapidly find a suitable stress relief heat treatment route when shape stability is vital.
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| 8. |
- Golling, Stefan, et al.
(author)
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Modelling of Plastic Deformation and Fracture in Hot Stamped Steel with Multi-Phase Microstructure
- 2017
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In: Procedia Engineering. - : Elsevier. - 1877-7058. ; 207, s. 687-692
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Hot stamping is an industrialized technique with the aim of improving material properties by heat treatment and forming of a component in a single production step. Within the field of hot stamping the method of tailored material properties evolved. Components with tailored material properties possess different mechanical properties in designated areas. The mechanical properties in a blank are modified by the formation of different microstructures. Martensite is a microstructure with high strength but low ductility, ferrite has lower strength but higher ductility. Using special tooling tough martensite and soft ferrite can be placed in adjacent sections in a blank. Between those sections a transition zone consisting of a mixed microstructure exists with mechanical properties between martensite and ferrite. Transition zones possess intermediate cooling rates, hence formation of bainite and composites of bainite and another phase can from.This paper presents an approach of modelling the complete process from austenitized blank to fracture. The method presented relies on the prediction of phases formed during cooling using an austenite decomposition model. In the course of ferrite formation the carbon content in the remaining austenite increases, the carbon content in austenite influences formation of additional daughter phases. The estimated phase composition is used in a homogenization scheme to predict the hardening of the material during plastic deformation. Fracture in the different microstructural phases is predicted using the strain decomposition provided by the homogenization and a fracture criteria. The homogenization scheme and the fracture criteria use measured data from single phase microstructures, i.e. ferrite, bainite and martensite.A heat treatment process for tensile test specimens is used to produce samples with different volume fractions of the microstructures ferrite, bainite and martensite. The pre-cut specimens are austenitized, ferrite is formed in a second furnace with lower temperature, bainite and martensite are formed by the use of a temperature controlled plane tool.Prediction of the phase content in mixed microstructures showed good agreement with microstructural characterization and therefore results can be used as input value for the homogenization. Comparing experimental and numerical results for a variety of different mixed microstructures good agreement in the prediction of hardening and fracture is found.It is concluded that the use of a homogenization method combined with a fracture model can be used to predict the mechanical response of mixed microstructures. The method described in the present work can be applied in the development of hot stamped components.
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| 9. |
- Lindgren, Lars-Erik, et al.
(author)
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Modeling of thermal stresses in low alloy steels
- 2019
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In: Journal of thermal stresses. - : Taylor & Francis. - 0149-5739 .- 1521-074X. ; 42:6, s. 725-743
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Computing the evolution of thermal stresses accurately requires appropriate constitutive relations. This includes both the thermal and mechanical aspects, as temperature is the driver to thermal stresses. The paradigm of Integrated Computational Materials Engineering (ICME) aims at being able to quantitatively relate process-structure-property of a material. The article describes physics based models, denoted bridging elements, which are one step towards the vision of ICME. They couple material structure with heat capacity, heat conductivity, thermal and transformation strains and elastic properties for hypo-eutectoid steels. The models can account for the chemical composition of the steel and its processing, i.e. thermomechanical history, giving the evolution of the microstructure and the corresponding properties.
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| 10. |
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