| 1. |
- Bergman, Peder, et al.
(author)
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Radial Variation of Measured Carrier Lifetimes in Epitaxial Layers Grown with Wafer Rotation
- 2012
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In: Materials Science Forum Vols 717 - 720. - : Trans Tech Publications Inc.. ; , s. 289-292
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In this report we present homoepitaxial growth of 4H-SiC on the Si-face of nominally on-axis substrates with diameter up to 100 mm in a hot-wall chemical vapor deposition reactor. A comparatively low carrier lifetime has been observed in these layers. Also, local variations in carrier lifetime are different from standard off-cut epilayers. The properties of layers were studied with more focus on charge carrier lifetime and its correlation with starting growth conditions, inhomogeneous surface morphology and different growth mechanisms.
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| 2. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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Carrier Lifetime Controlling Defects Z(1/2) and RB1 in Standard and Chlorinated Chemistry Grown 4H-SiC
- 2014
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In: Crystal Growth & Design. - : American Chemical Society (ACS). - 1528-7483 .- 1528-7505. ; 14:8, s. 4104-4110
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- 4H-SiC epilayers grown by standard and chlorinated chemistry were analyzed for their minority carrier lifetime and deep level recombination centers using time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) and standard deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS). Next to the well-known Z(1/2) deep level a second effective lifetime killer, RB1 (activation energy 1.05 eV, electron capture cross section 2 x 10(-16) cm(2), suggested hole capture cross section (5 +/- 2) x 10(-15) cm(2)), is detected in chloride chemistry grown epilayers. Junction-DLTS and bulk recombination simulations are used to confirm the lifetime killing properties of this level. The measured RB1 concentration appears to be a function of the iron-related Fe1 level concentration, which is unintentionally introduced via the corrosion of reactor steel parts by the chlorinated chemistry. Reactor design and the growth zone temperature profile are thought to enable the formation of RB1 in the presence of iron contamination under conditions otherwise optimal for growth of material with very low Z(1/2) concentrations. The RB1 defect is either an intrinsic defect similar to RD1/2 or EH5 or a complex involving iron. Control of these corrosion issues allows the growth of material at a high growth rate and with high minority carrier lifetime based on Z(1/2) as the only bulk recombination center.
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| 3. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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Carrier lifetime in p- and n-type 4H-SiC
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Other publication (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Temperature-dependent time-resolved photoluminescence measurements made in the temperature range from 77 K to 1000 K on free-standing as grown n-type 4H-SiC and p-type 4H-SiC epilayers, which are either as-grown or annealed at 1000 °C, 1400 °C or 1700 °C, are analyzed. The development of the instantaneous carrier lifetime over temperature, calculated from the decay curves of all n- and p-type samples, is found to be identical in the entire temperature range. With increasing annealing temperature only the magnitude of the lifetime in p-type 4H-SiC decreases while the trend remains identical to that in the as-grown n-type sample. Annealing thus only increases the density of the main recombination center which appears to control lifetime in as-grown n- and p-type material. The results implies that the lifetime in all samples may be governed by the same intrinsic defect, which we suggest to be Z1/2.
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| 4. |
- Booker, Ian Don, 1982-
(author)
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Carrier Lifetime Relevant Deep Levels in SiC
- 2015
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Silicon carbide (SiC) is currently under development for high power bipolar devices such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). A major issue for these devices is the charge carrier lifetime, which, in the absence of structural defects such as dislocations, is influenced by point defects and their associated deep levels. These defects provide energy levels within the bandgap and may act as either recombination or trapping centers, depending on whether they interact with both conduction and valence band or only one of the two bands. Of all deep levels know in 4H-SiC, the intrinsic carbon vacancy related Z1/2 is the most problematic since it is a very effective recombination center which is unavoidably formed during growth. Its concentration in the epilayer can be decreased for the production of high voltage devices by injecting interstitial carbon, for example by oxidation, which, however, results in the formation of other new deep levels.Apart from intrinsic crystal flaws, extrinsic defects such as transition metals may also produce deep levels within the bandgap, which in literature have so far only been shown to produce trapping effects.The focus of the thesis is the transient electrical and optical characterization of deep levels in SiC and their influence on the carrier lifetime. For this purpose, deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and minority carrier transient spectroscopy (MCTS) variations were used in combination with time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL). Paper 1 deals with a lifetime limiting deep level related to Fe-incorporation in n-type 4H-SiC during growth and papers 2 and 3 focus on identifying the main intrinsic recombination center in p-type 4H-SiC. In paper 4, the details of the charge carrier capture behavior of the deeper donor levels of the carbon vacancy, EH6/7, are investigated. Paper 5 deals with trapping effects created by unwanted incorporation of high amounts of boron during growth of n-type 4H-SiC which hinders the measurement of the carrier lifetime by room temperature TRPL. Finally, paper 6 is concerned with the characterization of oxidation-induced deep levels created in n- and p-type 4H- and 6H-SiC as a side-product of lifetime improvement by oxidation.In paper 1, the appearance of a new recombination center in n-type 4H-SiC, the RB1 level is discussed and the material is analyzed using room temperature TRPL, DLTS and pnjunction DLTS. The level appears to originate from a reactor contamination with Fe, a transition metal that generally leads to the formation of several trapping centers in the bandgap. Here it is found that under specific circumstances beneficial to the growth of high-quality material with a low Z1/2 concentration, the Fe incorporation also creates an additional recombination center capable of limiting the carrier lifetime.In paper 2, all deep levels found in p-type 4H-SiC grown at Linköping University which are accessible by DLTS and MCTS are investigated with regard to their efficiency as recombination centers. We find that none of the detectable levels is able to reduce carrier lifetime in p-type significantly, which points to the lifetime killer being located in the top half of the bandgap and having a large hole to electron capture cross section ratio (such as Z1/2, which is found in n-type material), making it undetectable by DLTS and MCTS.Paper 3 compares carrier lifetimes measured by temperature-dependent TRPL measurements in n- and p-type 4H-SiC and it is shown that the lifetime development over a large temperature range (77 - 1000 K) is similar in both types. This is interpreted as a further indication that the carbon vacancy related Z1/2 level is the main lifetime killer in p-type.In paper 4, the hole and electron capture cross sections of the near midgap deep levels EH6/7 are characterized. Both levels are capable of rapid electron capture but have only small hole capture rates, making them insignificant as recombination centers, despite their advantageous position near midgap.Minority carrier trapping by boron, which is both a p-type dopant and an unavoidable contaminant in 4H-SiC grown by CVD, is investigated in paper 5. Since even the shallow boron acceptor levels are relatively deep in the bandgap, minority trap and-release effects are detectable in room-temperature TRPL measurements. In case a high density of boron exists in n-type 4H-SiC, for example leached out from damaged graphite reactor parts during growth, we demonstrate that these trapping effects may be misinterpreted in room temperature TRPL measurements as a long free carrier lifetime.Paper 6 uses MCTS, DLTS, and room temperature TRPL to characterize the oxidation induced deep levels ON1 and ON2 in n- and p-type 4H- and their counterparts OS1-OS3 in 6H-SiC. The levels are found to all be positive-U, coupled two-levels defects which trap electrons efficiently but exhibit very inefficient hole capture once the defect is fully occupied by electrons. It is shown that these levels are incapable of significantly influencing carrier lifetime in epilayers which underwent high temperature lifetime enhancement oxidations. Due to their high density after oxidation and their high thermal stability they may, however, act to compensate n-type doping in low-doped material.
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| 5. |
- Booker, Ian D., et al.
(author)
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Chloride-based SiC growth on a-axis 4H-€“SiC substrates
- 2016
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In: Physica. B, Condensed matter. - : Elsevier. - 0921-4526 .- 1873-2135. ; 480, s. 23-25
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Abstract SiC has, during the last few years, become increasingly important as a power-device material for high voltage applications. The thick, low-doped voltage-supporting epitaxial layer is normally grown by CVD on 4° off-cut 4H–SiC substrates at a growth rate of 5 – 10 Ό m / h using silane (SiH4) and propane (C3H8) or ethylene (C2H4) as precursors. The concentrations of epitaxial defects and dislocations depend to a large extent on the underlying substrate but can also be influenced by the actual epitaxial growth process. Here we will present a study on the properties of the epitaxial layers grown by a Cl-based technique on an a-axis (90° off-cut from c-direction) 4H–SiC substrate.
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| 6. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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Comparison of post-growth carrier lifetime improvement methods for 4H-SiC epilayers
- 2012
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In: Silicon Carbide And Related Materials 2011, Pts 1 And 2. - : Trans Tech Publications Inc.. - 9783037854198 ; , s. 285-288, s. 285-288
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We compare two methods for post-growth improvement of bulk carrier lifetime in 4H-SiC: dry oxidations and implantations with either 12C or 14N, followed by high temperature anneals in Ar atmosphere. Application of these techniques to samples cut from the same wafer/epilayer yields 2- to 11-fold lifetime increases, with the implantation/annealing technique shown to give greater maximum lifetimes. The maximum lifetimes reached are ∼5 μs after 12C implantation at 600 °C and annealing in Ar for 180 minutes at 1500 °C. At higher annealing temperatures the lifetimes decreases, a result which differs from reports in the literature.
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| 7. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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Donor and double donor transitions of the carbon vacancy related EH6/7 deep level in 4H-SiC
- 2016
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In: Journal of Applied Physics. - : American Institute of Physics (AIP). - 0021-8979 .- 1089-7550. ; 119:23
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Using medium- and high-resolution multi-spectra fitting of deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), minority carrier transient spectroscopy (MCTS), optical O-DLTS and optical-electrical (OE)-MCTS measurements, we show that the EH6∕7 deep level in 4H-SiC is composed of two strongly overlapping, two electron emission processes with thermal activation energies of 1.49 eV and 1.58 eV for EH6 and 1.48 eV and 1.66 eV for EH7. The electron emission peaks of EH7 completely overlap while the emission peaks of EH6 occur offset at slightly different temperatures in the spectra. OE-MCTS measurements of the hole capture cross section σp 0(T) in p-type samples reveal a trap-Auger process, whereby hole capture into the defect occupied by two electrons leads to a recombination event and the ejection of the second electron into the conduction band. Values of the hole and electron capture cross sections σn(T) and σp(T) differ strongly due to the donor like nature of the deep levels and while all σn(T) have a negative temperature dependence, the σp(T) appear to be temperature independent. Average values at the DLTS measurement temperature (∼600 K) are σn 2+(T) ≈ 1 × 10−14 cm2, σn +(T) ≈ 1 × 10−14 cm2, and σp 0(T) ≈ 9 × 10−18 cm2 for EH6 and σn 2+(T) ≈ 2 × 10−14 cm2, σn +(T) ≈ 2 × 10−14 cm2, σp 0(T) ≈ 1 × 10−20 cm2 for EH7. Since EH7 has already been identified as a donor transition of the carbon vacancy, we propose that the EH6∕7 center in total represents the overlapping first and second donor transitions of the carbon vacancy defects on both inequivalent lattice sites.
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| 8. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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Electron and hole capture cross sections of deep levels accessible by DLTS and MCTS in p-type 4H-SiC
-
Other publication (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The effective electron (σn(T)) and hole (σn(T)) capture cross sections of the electrically active deep levels HK0, HK2, LB1 and EM1 found in as-grown, high temperature annealed and oxidized p-type 4H-SiC were measured by deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), minority carrier transient spectroscopy (MCTS) and optical-electrical MCTS and DLTS (OE-MCTS and EO-DLTS) in an effort to determine the potential recombination centers in p-type material. Additionally, we also find the D-center, and the deep levels EH6/7, ON1 and ON2 in our samples, while the levels HK1, HK3 and HK4, reported in literature, are always below the detection limit. We further compare deep level concentrations and the timeresolved photoluminescence (TRPL) measured low injection (τLI) in samples annealed at up to 1920 °C. None of the detected deep levels possess σp(T):σn(T) ratios which could enable them to act as efficient recombination centers in the annealed epilayers, where τLI ranges from 1.2·10-6 s to less than 100·10-9 s. However, a clear anti-correlation between τLI and the EH6/7 concentration is found, which is linked to the main lifetime limiting center in n-type material, Z1/2, via their common origin, the carbon vacancy. Due to their large σp(T):σn(T) ratio, the Z1/2 deep levels are not detected by frontside illumination MCTS in p-type material. We thus conclude that the main lifetime limiting deep level(s) in p-type 4HSiC appear to be located in the upper half of the bandgap and are most likely either Z1/2, or other deep levels of intrinsic or partially intrinsic origin with a similar σp(T):σn(T) ratio.
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| 9. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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High-Resolution Time-Resolved Carrier Lifetime and Photoluminescence Mapping of 4H-SiC Epilayers
- 2012
-
In: Materials Science Forum Vols 717 - 720. - : Trans Tech Publications Inc.. ; , s. 293-296
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We present a comparison between time-resolved carrier lifetime mappings of several samples and integrated near band edge intensity photoluminescence mappings using a pulsed laser. High-injection conditions and as-grown material are used, which generally allow for the assumption of a single exponential decay. The photoluminescence intensity under these circumstances is proportional to the carrier lifetime and the mappings can be used to detect lifetime-influencing defects in epilayers and give an estimate of the carrier lifetime variation over the wafer. Several examples for the defect detection capability of the system are given.
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| 10. |
- Booker, Ian Don, et al.
(author)
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Oxidation-induced deep levels in n- and p-type 4H- and 6H-SiC and their influence on carrier lifetime
- 2016
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In: Physical Review Applied. - : American Physical Society. - 2331-7019. ; 6:1, s. 1-15
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We present a complete analysis of the electron- and hole-capture and -emission processes of the deep levels ON1, ON2a, and ON2b in 4H-SiC and their 6H-SiC counterparts OS1a and OS1b through OS3a and OS3b, which are produced by lifetime enhancement oxidation or implantation and annealing techniques. The modeling is based on a simultaneous numerical fitting of multiple high-resolution capacitance deep-level transient spectroscopy spectra measured with different filling-pulse lengths in n- and p-type material. All defects are found to be double-donor-type positive-U two-level defects with very small hole-capture cross sections, making them recombination centers of low efficiency, in accordance with minority-carrier-lifetime measurements. Their behavior as trapping and weak recombination centers, their large concentrations resulting from the lifetime enhancement oxidations, and their high thermal stability, however, make it advisable to minimize their presence in active regions of devices, for example, the base layer of bipolar junction transistors.
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