| 1. |
- Brandt, Are W, et al.
(author)
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Charging of electric cars in parking garages
- 2020
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- There has been a huge increase in the number of electric cars over the last few years, as of the 1st of September 2019 a total of 247,565 electric cars were registered in Norway. There is a clear political incentive to facilitate the charging of electric cars in parking garages in Norway. This has resulted in a public inquiry regarding a proposed amendment to the Norwegian Planning and Building Act (Planning and Building Act, the Norwegian Act relating to owner-tenant sections and the Norwegian Housing Cooperatives Act). The inquiry proposes that housing cooperative owners be given the right to install chargers for electric cars. The inquiry has resulted in a consultation paper in which the uncertainties regarding fire safety during electric car charging in confined spaces were highlighted.The study examined whether the charging of electric cars in parking garages results in unacceptable risk of fire and, if so, what sort of measures would be required to ensure acceptable risk levels.One of the objectives of the study was to identify the required measures to ensure acceptable safety levels when parking and charging electric cars in parking garages.This was done through the use of a comprehensive evaluation of the risk of fire in electric cars while charging, the risk of fire in electrical installations in parking garages during charging and also the layout of the parking garage and the possibility for active firefighting or extinguishing using sprinklers and water mist systems.It also investigated the relevant measures that could be taken to prevent increased fire risk arising from the installation of charging points for electric cars.ConclusionsBased on the findings from statistics and a literature review, there were no indications that charging of electric cars in parking garages would result in an increased probability of fire. The regulations regarding charging points for electric cars seem to be adequate for ensuring that the risk of fire arising due to the charging of electric cars in parking garages is acceptable. This requires that the charging points are in accordance with the regulations and that the recommendations from the car manufacturers and the producers of the charging points are followed. It is important to avoid the use of power sockets not intended for the charging of vehicles and also to avoid the use of extension leads. Based on this, the need for fixed water-based firefighting systems in parking garages is no higher for parking garages with the possibility of charging of electric cars than in other parking garages.There are still unknown factors with regard to both the development of fire in parking garages in general and also regarding potential fire propagation to the battery pack specifically. More knowledge is needed in order to increase the accuracy of evaluations and recommendations.
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| 2. |
- Brandt, Are W, et al.
(author)
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Ladding av elbil i parkeringsgarage
- 2020
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Charging of electric cars in parking garagesThere has been a huge increase in the number of electric cars over the last few years, as of the 1st of September 2019 a total of 247,565 electric cars were registered in Norway. There is a clear political incentive to facilitate the charging of electric cars in parking garages in Norway. This has resulted in a public inquiry regarding a proposed amendment to the Norwegian Planning and Building Act (Planning and Building Act, the Norwegian Act relating to owner-tenant sections and the Norwegian Housing Cooperatives Act). The inquiry proposes that housing cooperative owners be given the right to install chargers for electric cars. The inquiry has resulted in a consultation paper in which the uncertainties regarding fire safety during electric car charging in confined spaces were highlighted.The study examined whether the charging of electric cars in parking garages results in unacceptable risk of fire and, if so, what sort of measures would be required to ensure acceptable risk levels.One of the objectives of the study was to identify the required measures to ensure acceptable safety levels when parking and charging electric cars in parking garages.This was done through the use of a comprehensive evaluation of the risk of fire in electric cars while charging, the risk of fire in electrical installations in parking garages during charging and also the layout of the parking garage and the possibility for active firefighting or extinguishing using sprinklers and water mist systems.It also investigated the relevant measures that could be taken to prevent increased fire risk arising from the installation of charging points for electric cars.ConclusionsBased on the findings from statistics and a literature review, there were no indications that charging of electric cars in parking garages would result in an increased probability of fire. The regulations regarding charging points for electric cars seem to be adequate for ensuring that the risk of fire arising due to the charging of electric cars in parking garages is acceptable. This requires that the charging points are in accordance with the regulations and that the recommendations from the car manufacturers and the producers of the charging points are followed. It is important to avoid the use of power sockets not intended for the charging of vehicles and also to avoid the use of extension leads. Based on this, the need for fixed water-based firefighting systems in parking garages is no higher for parking garages with the possibility of charging of electric cars than in other parking garages.There are still unknown factors with regard to both the development of fire in parking garages in general and also regarding potential fire propagation to the battery pack specifically. More knowledge is needed in order to increase the accuracy of evaluations and recommendations.
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| 3. |
- Fjellgaard Mikalsen, Ragni, et al.
(author)
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Branner i avfallsanlegg
- 2019
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Waste facilities represent a vital function in society, but fires occur regularly. The aim of this study is to provide a knowledge base on risks associated with fires in waste facilities, and to identify measures that can prevent fire and limit the extent of fire damage and environmental impact.Information was obtained through meetings with the waste industry, two inspections at waste facilities, a survey, a literature review and a review of the events registered in the fire and rescue services' reporting solution BRIS, as well as communication with other stakeholders. The project included land-based waste management; facilities for the reception and storage of waste (N=661), reception and storage of hazardous waste (N=250), and treatment facilities for hazardous waste (N=38). Waste treatment plants (such as biogas- or incinerator plants) as well as landfills are not included.High-risk waste types have been found to be general, residual waste, batteries (especially batteries not correctly sorted), electrical and electronic (EE) waste, as well as paper, paperboard and cardboard. General, residual waste stands out as an important focus area for reducing the overall fire risk at Norwegian waste facilities, both based on reported frequency of fire ignition and potential consequences with regard to equipment, downtime, environment and health. Waste categorized as "Hazardous Waste" doesnot stand out, and is not ranked in the highest risk category in this study, since many preventive and damage reducing measures have been implemented, and appear to work. Chapter 9 provides details on rating of fire risk.In the period January 2016 - May 2019, 141 fires were reported in waste facilities in Norway in BRIS. The total number of fires (including small, medium and large fires) is unknown, but is believed to be far higher. Common sources of ignition have been found to be composting (self-ignition), thermal runaway in batteries, heat friction by grinding, human activity and unknown cause.Regularly occurring fires outdoors, increased use of indoor storage and new types of waste such as lithium batteries lead to a risk that is difficult to manage, which can be a challenge with regard to insurance of waste facilities. Increased use of indoor storage is motivated by consideration for the environment and neighbours, but it may conflict with fire safety, especially because it restricts the access for the fire fighters and because of possible high heat stress on the load-bearing structure of the building housing the waste.Any major fire, regardless of the type of waste burned, could potentially lead to the release of pollutants into the air, water or soil. All smoke from fires can be harmful to humans and exposure to it must be taken seriously. There is a need for more knowledge and expertise in assessing emissions and environmental consequences in connection with firefighting. The use of extinguishing foam can reduce the consumption of extinguishing water, but the foam itself can contribute to contamination if discharged into water. A more detailed list of chemical content in the foam product data sheet is needed in order to be able to assess environmental concerns during use.2© RISE Research Institutes of SwedenMeasures have been proposed for the design of more firesafe facilities, for waste management and for limiting the environmental impact during and after a fire. Key measures that should be prioritized are detection and monitoring, limiting the amounts of waste, tidiness, sufficient training, reception control, available and properly dimensioned fire extinguishing equipment, as well as solutions to collect extinguishing water in order to prevent the release of environmental toxins. It has not been possible to verify the effect of individual measures based on available data and statistics. The industry’s own overall assessment has been found to be consistent with experience-based observations found in other studies, and this has been found to be the best available information on effective measures. The responsibility for most of the measures lies with the owner of the facility or the business, and the focus should be on the use of documented technical solutions and the assessment of whether measures are appropriate and practicable at each facility. A fire risk assessment, locally adapted to the respective facility is important, as there are large variations in the types of waste handled, the size and the design of facilities, as well as other local conditions that differ between waste facilities in Norway. The fire service should strive to achieve a close dialogue and cooperation with the waste facilities. The authorities should facilitate better knowledge transfer and learning after fires, between different fire departments. The authorities should also, in collaboration with the industry, develop a national attitude campaign to avoid faulty battery sorting.Further work should study extinguishing techniques and extinguishing tactics that can limit the amount of water needed and that can be used during large-scale fires. Various detection and extinguishing solutions for use at waste facilities should be surveyed, assessed with regards to suitability and documented in cases where documentation is lacking. This should be made available on an openly accessible platform. There is also a need for further studies on the chemical composition of smoke from different types of waste fires, as well as studies on the extent and spread of fire smoke and environmental impacts from fires on water recipients.Increased fire safety at waste facilities could facilitate a better dialogue between industry and insurance providers by reducing potential financial losses. Good handling of fire risk in waste facilities will not only affect the plants themselves, but will also limit potential societal costs and consequences for health and the environment.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Fjellgaard Mikalsen, Ragni, et al.
(author)
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Fires in waste facilities : Challenges and solutions from a Scandinavian perspective
- 2021
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In: Fire safety journal. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 0379-7112 .- 1873-7226. ; 120
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Fires in waste facilities represent significant potential social, economic and environmental challenges. Although the awareness of fires in waste facilities and their consequences has increased in recent years, significant fire safety challenges remain. Fires in waste facilities in Norway and Sweden have been studied to make an overall fire safety assessment and propose measures for increased fire safety. Common ignition causes include self-heating, thermal runaway in batteries, friction, human activity, technical or electrical error and unfavourable combined storage. High-risk wastes include general, residual waste, batteries, electrical and electronics waste, and paper and cardboard. Frequent fires in outdoor storage, increasing indoor storage and new types of waste appear to result in an increased reluctance by insurance companies to work with waste facilities. Measures are suggested for fire safe facility design, operations, waste handling and storage, as well as actions to limit the consequences for the environment and the facility during and after a fire. These actions may prevent fires and minimise the impact of fires that do occur. Increased fire safety at waste facilities may foster a better dialogue between the industry and insurance providers by reducing the potential economic impacts, and limit potential social costs and environmental impacts. © 2020 The Authors
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| 6. |
- Fjellgaard Mikalsen, Ragni, et al.
(author)
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Jet fires and cryogenic spills: How to document extreme industrial incidents
- 2019
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In: <em>Sixth Magdeburg Fire and Explosion Days (MBE2019) conference proceedings, </em>.
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In industrial plants, such as oil platforms, refineries or onboard vessels carrying fuel, a rupture event of a pipeline could have dramatic consequences, as was demonstrated both in the Piper Alpha and Deepwater Horizon accidents. If surfaces are exposed to extreme conditions, both extreme cold (cryogenic spills) and extreme heat (jet fires), this can affect exposed surfaces, and can cause a domino effect of severe events.
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| 7. |
- Glansberg, Karin, et al.
(author)
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Brannrisiko forbundet med kull- og vedfyrte griller i restauranter
- 2019
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants – Fire safety and documentation requirementsThe Norwegian fire brigade has experienced an increased number of fires that have occurred due to charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants. The fires have mainly occurred in the kitchen exhaust system in connection to the oven, or in nearby wall constructions.According to the Norwegian Building Authority, charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants shall not be defined as fireplaces, but as production equipment. This means that, as opposed to fireplaces, requirements on minimum distances and exhaust systems are not specified. The regulations for production equipment do not include specific requirements for charcoal burning ovens and the fire service, restaurants, building owners as well as the suppliers of restaurant charcoal burning ovens consider these regulations to be unclear and difficult to interpret.Kitchen exhaust systems for charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants are defined as construction products and are regulated by Regulations on technical requirements for construction (TEK17). To improve the fire safety in restaurants with charcoal and wood burning ovens should the regulatory requirements be revised to ensure that the kitchen exhaust systems connected to these ovens are able to withstand the high temperatures and any spark or flame formation that may occur in the ovens. Cleaning of the exhaust and duct systems is critical, as fires in the duct systems can spread rapidly due to ignition of grease and soot, giving severe damages.It is recommended to establish a requirement that all charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants should be reported and registered. That would give the fire service a complete overview of restaurants with charcoal burning ovens. This is a prerequisite for being able to reach out with necessary fire safety information related to installation and use of charcoal burning ovens in order to prevent fire incidents.In addition to regulations, relevant standards have been listed in this study. The Norwegian Building Authority has previously made a statement that the standard NS-EN 12815 Residential cookers fired by solid fuel - Requirements and testing methods is not valid for charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants. NS-EN 12815 is applicable for residential kitchen ovens equipped with a hotplate and a separate oven for cooking. RISE Fire Research has not found a NS-EN standard or national standard specifically for charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants.On-site inspections at five different restaurants with charcoal burning ovens gave valuable insight into how fire safety is taken care of in a selection of well-established grill restaurants. Two types of charcoal burning ovens were observed during the inspections, one closed and one open type. Based on the observations during the inspections, input from the restaurants, the charcoal burning oven industry, and the fire service, it is recommended to further investigate, by testing, whether a new test standard should be developed, or whether one of the existing test standards for fireplaces covers the necessary safety requirements of charcoal and wood burning ovens in restaurants.
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| 8. |
- Sæter Bøe, Andreas, et al.
(author)
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Brannrisiko ved lagring av ikke-tilkoblede litium-ion og litiumbatterier
- 2019
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Fire risk associated with storage of Lithium- and Lithium-ion batteriesIn this project we have been in contact with several different actors that handle and store large quantities of non-connected lithium and lithium-ion batteries. Batteries will, during their lifetime, be stored at different locations, and the locations that are considered to have the largest amount of batteries are manufacturers / distributors and recycling plants.For operators who store large quantities of new batteries, it is common to store the batteries on pallets in conventional storage buildings secured by a water sprinkler system. Based on information from the plants we have been in contact with, we consider the fire risk to be about the same as an ordinary warehouse. Factors that may affect the fire risk are: The amount of batteries, battery state of charge, possible ignition sources, general fire protection of the storage, and knowledge of battery-related fire. One possible cause of fire during storage and handling of batteries in a warehouse is due to mechanical damage, for example by a falling pallet from truck. Mechanical damage can cause internal short-circuits in the battery cells, which will generate heat, and possibly a fire. Handling by truck is in itself a possible source of ignition as there are examples that a truck has started to burn both during charging and while driving.At a battery packaging facility we have been in contact with, who receives battery cells directly from a manufacturer, the cells had a charge state of 20 % and were packed according to the transport standard UN 3480. The focus on fire safety and the knowledge of batteries in general was high.For actors distributing batteries as part of a larger product assortment, the amount of batteries will be substantially smaller, and knowledge of battery-related fire will normally be less. The charging state of batteries in such warehouses is stated to be higher than that of the manufacturer and may be about 50 – 95 %. A high state of charge makes the cells more unstable and based on this we believe that the risk is somewhat higher for such storage, than storage of battery cells with lower charge levels.At recycling facilities, there is a significantly higher fire risk than storage of new batteries in storage, mainly because cells have been (and are) subject to mechanical stresses in the form of vibrations and shocks, which can lead to more unstable cells and possibly lead to internal short circuits. External short circuits can also occur if the terminals of a battery come into contact through a low-resistance connection. The recycling plants we have been in contact with, have a high focus on fire safety and have taken a number of precautions to prevent a fire to occur, and have put in place measures that can prevent a small fire to develop into a larger fire. The recycling plants seem to have good control over the fire risk of batteries that are checked and sorted, while the fire risk is somewhat higher in the area where the batteries can be unsorted and not currently controlled. Several of the recycling plants experience regular fire outbreaks caused by lithium / lithium-ion batteries, but these cases are normally handled with simple fire extinguishing measures on site.Based on those we have been in contact with, we believe that the actors with the greatest amount of batteries also have a high focus on fire safety and a great deal of knowledge about battery safety, which together pose an acceptable risk.The fire risk for actors handling and storing smaller amounts of batteries may be higher, as there is less focus on and knowledge of battery safety.As the result of this project mainly is based on visiting different actors, there may be other actors with a slightly different focus on fire safety and knowledge about batteries.The following learning points have been extracted:General• Have good procedures to reduce fire risk.• Ensure that practices comply with procedures.Storage of batteries in stock• Keep the cells in as low charge state as possible. When packaging according to UN 3480, this is automatically fulfilled.• Have good dialogue with the local fire department.• Have good truck driving routines to avoid dropping pallets.• Place possible sources of ignition (e.g. truck charger) at a sufficient distance from combustible materials.Batteries at recycling plants• Limit the amount of batteries in one place.• Store different battery types separated in appropriate storage containers, in a dry location.• Ensure that degassing from batteries may not lead to accumulation of combustible gases.• Keep combustible materials at a safe distance.• Provide a safe zone where unstable batteries can temporarily be stored.• Ensure good training of employees.• Have general order and orderliness.• Access to local fire extinguishing equipment.• Have good dialogue with the local fire department.• Provide good access for the fire service.Further work is needed to document the fire characteristics of a pallet of non-connected battery cells, in the form of full-scale fire tests to document flammability, fire spread and fire dynamics, and how such a fire can be extinguished.
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| 9. |
- Stolen, Reidar, et al.
(author)
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Heat flux in jet fires : Unified method for measuring the heat flux levels of jet fires
- 2018
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In: Nordic Fire and Safety Days (NFSD2018) Conference proceedings (with peer-review).
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Passive fire protection materials are used to protect critical structures against the heat from fires. In process plants with pressurized combustible substances there may be a risk of jet fires. Through risk analysis the severity of these jet fires is determined and these result in fire resistance requirements with different heat flux levels for different segments. The relevant test standard for fire resistance against jet fires does not include any measurements or definitions of the heat flux in the test flame which the tested object is exposed to. This paper presents methods for reaching different heat flux levels and how to measure them in a jet fire with limited deviations from the established jet fire test standard.
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| 10. |
- Storesund, Karolina, et al.
(author)
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Smoke alarm efficiency : Waking sleeping occupants
- 2019
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- A literature survey was conducted to study the available research connected to wakening of sleeping people from the sound of a smoke alarm. The effect on the sound attenuation from typical building materials has also been studied.While the common high frequency signal used in residential smoke alarms will wake up most unimpaired adults, is not the most efficient alarm type to awaken certain groups of the population. Children, elderly and people influenced by alcohol or medicines that affect sleep belong to the group at risk of not being awaken by the sound of the common smoke alarm.A 520 Hz alarm signal have been shown to efficiently wake up the general population as well as people at risk. This signal has also been shown to maintain its sound level more efficiently when transmitted through and via ordinary building components in dwellings.For this reason, it is recommended that product documentation related to the CE-marked smoke alarm should include both minimum sound output (dB(A)) as well as describing the tone (e.g. frequency) in order for the consumer to be able to make an informed choice that fits their needs.
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