| 1. |
- Aggerstam, Thomas, et al.
(author)
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Electron and hole capture cross-sections of Fe acceptors in GaN:Fe epitaxially grown on sapphire
- 2007
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 36:12, s. 1621-1624
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Carrier trapping of Fe (3+)/Fe2+ deep acceptors in epitaxially grown GaN:Fe on sapphire was studied by time-resolved photoluminescence. For the investigated Fe doping levels on the order of 10(18) cm(-3), the luminescence decay times are strongly dependent on the Fe concentration, indicating that Fe centers act as predominant nonradiative recombination channels. Linear dependence of the decay time on the iron concentration allows estimation of the electron capture cross-section for the Fe3+ ions, which is equal to 1.9 x 10(-15) cm(2). The upper bound for the cross-section of the hole capture of Fe2+ was evaluated as 10 x 10(-15) cm
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| 2. |
- Ahlberg, Patrik, 1985-, et al.
(author)
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Interface Dependent Effective Mobility in Graphene Field Effect Transistors
- 2018
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 47:3, s. 1757-1761
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- By pretreating the substrate of a graphene field-effect transistor (G-FET), a stable unipolar transfer characteristic, instead of the typical V-shape ambipolar behavior, has been demonstrated. This behavior is achieved through functionalization of the SiO2/Si substrate that changes the SiO2 surface from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, in combination with postdeposition of an Al2O3 film by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Consequently, the back-gated G-FET is found to have increased apparent hole mobility and suppressed apparent electron mobility. Furthermore, with addition of a top-gate electrode, the G-FET is in a double-gate configuration with independent top- or back-gate control. The observed difference in mobility is shown to also be dependent on the top-gate bias, with more pronounced effect at higher electric field. Thus, the combination of top and bottom gates allows control of the G-FET's electron and hole mobilities, i.e., of the transfer behavior. Based on these observations, it is proposed that polar ligands are introduced during the ALD step and, depending on their polarization, result in an apparent increase of the effective hole mobility and an apparent suppressed effective electron mobility.
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| 3. |
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Bao, Jie, et al.
(author)
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Measurement of Dielectric Properties of Ultrafine BaTiO3 Using an Organic-Inorganic Composite Method
- 2015
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1543-186X .- 0361-5235. ; 44:7, s. 2300-2307
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Ultrafine BaTiO3, unlike traditional ferroelectric materials, demonstrates some interesting dielectric properties, such as a gradual transition from paraelectric to ferroelectric phase, which is similar to dielectric relaxation ferroelectrics. Although several methods have been recently proposed to measure the dielectric properties of ultrafine BaTiO3, the problem still remains unsolved. This paper proposes a new method to estimate the dielectric properties of ultrafine BaTiO3 by measuring and analyzing the dielectric properties of BaTiO3-epoxy composites. The Novocontrol dielectric measuring system was employed to measure the dielectric response of the composites. The dielectric behavior and relaxation characteristics of the BaTiO3 filler were estimated by modeling and calculating the dielectric constant based on different mixture theories. Results reveal that the effect of surface states yields dielectric relaxation in ultrafine BaTiO3.
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| 6. |
- Barrios, C. A., et al.
(author)
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Epitaxially regrown GaAs/AlGaAs laser mesas with semi-insulating GaInP : Fe and GaAs : Fe
- 2001
-
In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 30:8, s. 987-991
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Selective regrowth of semi-insulating iron-doped Ga0.51In0.49P (SI-GaInP:Fe) and SI-GaAs:Fe around GaAs/AlGaAs mesas by hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) has been achieved. A HCl based in-situ cleaning procedure has been used to remove aluminum oxide from the etched walls of the mesas. Regrowth conducted without proper cleaning results in an irregular interface with voids. Regrowth morphology aspects are also presented. Our cleaning and regrowth methods have been used for fabricating GaAs/AlGaAs buried heterostructure in-plane lasers and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers.
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| 7. |
- Barth, Joachim, et al.
(author)
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Investigation of the thermoelectric properties of LiAlSi and LiAlGe
- 2010
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1543-186X .- 0361-5235. ; 39:9, s. 1856-1860
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The compounds LiAlSi and LiAlGe were synthesized and their thermoelectric properties and temperature stability were investigated. The samples were synthesized by arc melting of the constituent elements. For the determination of the structure type and the lattice parameter, x-ray powder diffraction was used. Both compounds were of the C1 b structure type. The stability of the compounds was investigated by differential thermal analysis and thermal gravimetry. The Seebeck coefficient and the electrical resistivity were determined in the temperature range from 2 K to 650 K. All compounds showed p-type behavior. The thermal conductivity was measured from 2 K to 400 K. The evaluation of the thermal conductivity yielded values as low as 2.4 W m -1 K -1 at 400 K for LiAlGe. The low values are ascribed to high mass fluctuation scattering and a possible rattling effect of the Li atoms.
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| 8. |
- Battiston, S., et al.
(author)
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Synthesis and Characterization of Al-Doped Mg2Si Thermoelectric Materials
- 2013
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - New York : Springer. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 42:7, s. 1956-1959
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Magnesium silicide (Mg2Si)-based alloys are promising candidates for thermoelectric (TE) energy conversion for the middle to high range of temperature. These materials are very attractive for TE research because of the abundance of their constituent elements in the Earth's crust. Mg2Si could replace lead-based TE materials, due to its low cost, nontoxicity, and low density. In this work, the role of aluminum doping (Mg2Si:Al = 1:x for x = 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, and 0.04 molar ratio) in dense Mg2Si materials was investigated. The synthesis process was performed by planetary milling under inert atmosphere starting from commercial Mg2Si pieces and Al powder. After ball milling, the samples were sintered by means of spark plasma sintering to density > 95%. The morphology, composition, and crystal structure of the samples were characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction analyses. Moreover, Seebeck coefficient analyses, as well as electrical and thermal conductivity measurements were performed for all samples up to 600A degrees C. The resultant estimated ZT values are comparable to those reported in the literature for these materials. In particular, the maximum ZT achieved was 0.50 for the x = 0.01 Al-doped sample at 600A degrees C.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
- Berglund, Martin, 1985-, et al.
(author)
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Evaluation of dielectric properties of HTCC alumina for realization of plasma sources
- 2015
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 44:10, s. 3654-3660
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- As the sensitivity of optogalvanic spectroscopy based on prototype microplasma sources increases, contamination from composite materials in the printed circuit board used starts to become a concern. In this paper, a transfer to high-temperature cofired alumina and platinum is made and evaluated. The high-purity alumina provides an inert plasma environment, and allows for temperatures above 1000A degrees C, which is beneficial for future integration of a combustor. To facilitate the design of high-end plasma sources, characterization of the radio frequency (RF) parameters of the materials around 2.6 GHz is carried out. A RF resonator structure was fabricated in both microstrip and stripline configurations. These resonators were geometrically and electrically characterized, and epsilon (r) and tan were calculated using the RF waveguide design tool Wcalc. The resulting epsilon (r) for the microstrip and stripline was found to be 10.68 (+/- 0.12) and 9.65 (+/- 0.14), respectively. The average tan of all devices was found to be 0.0011 (+/- 0.0007). With these parameters, a series of proof-of-concept plasma sources were fabricated and evaluated. Some problems in the fabrication stemmed from the lamination and difficulties with the screen-printing, but a functioning plasma source was demonstrated.
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| 11. |
- Broitman, E, et al.
(author)
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Letter: Electrical properties of carbon nitride thin films : Role of morphology and hydrogen content
- 2002
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 31:9, s. 957-961
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Journal article (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The influence of hydrogen content and ambient humidity on the electrical properties of carbon nitride (CNX) films deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering from a graphite target in Ar discharges mixed with N-2 and H-2 at a substrate temperature of 350degreesC have been investigated. Carbon films deposited in pure Ar exhibit a dark resistivity at room temperature of similar to4 X 10(-2) Omegacm, while the resistivity is one order of magnitude lower for CN0.25 films deposited in pure N-2, due to their denser morphology. The increasing H-2 fraction in the discharge gas leads to an increased resistivity for all gas mixtures. This is most pronounced for the nitrogen-free films deposited in an Ar/H-2 mixture, where the resistivity increases by over four orders of magnitude. This can be related to a decreased electron mobility as H inhibits the formation of double bonds. After exposure to air, the resistivity increases with time through two different diffusion regimes. The measured electrical properties of the films are related to the apparent film microstructure, bonding nature, and ambient humidity.
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| 12. |
- Buyanova, Irina, 1960-, et al.
(author)
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Optical and electrical characterization of (Ga,Mn)N/InGaN multiquantum well light-emitting diodes
- 2004
-
In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 33:5, s. 467-471
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- (Ga,Mn)/N/InGaN multiquantum well (MQW) diodes were grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). The current-voltage characteristics of the diodes show the presence of a parasitic junction between the (Ga,Mn)N and the n-GaN in the top contact layer due to the low conductivity of the former layer. Both the (Ga,Mn)N/InGaN diodes and control samples without Mn doping show no or very low (up to 10% at the lowest temperatures) optical (spin) polarization at zero field or 5 T, respectively. The observed polarization is shown to correspond to the intrinsic optical polarization of the InGaN MQW, due to population distribution between spin sublevels at low temperature, as separately studied by resonant optical excitation with a photon energy lower than the bandgap of both the GaN and (Ga,Mn)N. This indicates efficient losses in the studied structures of any spin polarization generated by optical spin orientation or electrical spin injection. The observed vanishing spin injection efficiency of the spin light-emitting diode (LED) is tentatively attributed to spin losses during the energy relaxation process to the ground state of the excitons giving rise to the light emission.
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| 13. |
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| 14. |
- Cheng, Jie, et al.
(author)
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Corrosion Investigations of Ruthenium in Potassium Periodate Solutions Relevant for Chemical Mechanical Polishing
- 2016
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 45:8, s. 4067-4075
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Ruthenium is the most promising material for the barrier layer used for the sub 14 nm technology node in integrated circuits manufacturing. Potassium periodate (KIO4)-based slurry is used in the chemical mechanical planarization (CMP) process of the barrier layer. However, the electrochemical and corrosion properties of ruthenium have not been investigated in such slurry. In this paper, the electrochemical and corrosion behaviors of ruthenium in KIO4 solutions were investigated under static conditions but at different pH values by potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements, combined with surface chemical analysis using auger electron spectroscopy. Moreover, to study wear enhanced corrosion during CMP, tribocorrosion experiments were carried out to monitor the current density changes during and after mechanical scratching. The results show that at pH 6, ruthenium forms a relatively thick and heterogeneous surface film composed of RuO2 center dot 2H(2)O/RuO3, showing a high corrosion resistance and it exhibits a quick repassivation after mechanical scratching. At pH 4, ruthenium shows a passivation behavior with formation of a uniform and conductive oxide like RuO2 center dot 2H(2)O. It should be noted that there is a possible formation of RuO4 toxic gas under this condition, which should be avoided in the actual production. However, at pH 11, ruthenium exhibits no considerable passivity and the corrosion proceeds uniformly.
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| 15. |
- Chu Thi, Quy, et al.
(author)
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Ethanol-Sensing Characteristics of Nanostructured ZnO: Nanorods, Nanowires, and Porous Nanoparticles
- 2017
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; , s. 1-6
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The morphology and crystalline size of metal oxide-sensing materials arebelieved to have a strong influence on the performance of gas sensors. In thispaper, we report a comparative study on the ethanol-sensing characteristics ofZnO nanorods, nanowires, and porous nanoparticles. The porous ZnOnanoparticles were prepared using a simple thermal decomposition of a sheetlikehydrozincite, whereas the nanorods and nanowires were grown byhydrothermal and chemical vapor deposition methods, respectively. Themorphology and crystal structure of the synthesized materials were characterizedby field-emission scanning electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction.Ethanol gas-sensing characteristics were systematically studied at differenttemperatures. Our findings show that for ethanol gas-sensing applications,ZnO porous nanoparticles exhibited the best sensitivity, followed by thenanowires and nanorods. Gas-sensing properties were also examined withrespect to the role of crystal growth orientation, crystal size, and porosity.
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| 16. |
- Chung, S. J., et al.
(author)
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Magneto-transport properties of a GaMnAs-based ferromagnetic semiconductor trilayer structure grown on a ZnMnSe buffer
- 2008
-
In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 37:6, s. 912-916
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Magneto-transport properties have been investigated in a ferromagnetic GaMnAs/GaAlAs/GaMnAs semiconductor trilayer structure grown on a ZnMnSe buffer layer. The presence of the ZnMnSe buffer leads to the formation of a spin-valve-like structure, which provides the opportunity to investigate spin scattering effects by Hall resistance and magnetoresistance (MR) measurements in the current-in-plane (CIP) configuration. The Curie temperature (T c) and coercivity of the bottom GaMnAs layer are observed to be different from those of the top GaMnAs layer due to the proximity effect between the ferromagnetic GaMnAs and paramagnetic ZnMnSe layers. A two-step behavior is observed in the hysteresis loops of the Hall resistance, indicating that the coercive fields are different in the two GaMnAs layers in the trilayer structure. The magnetoresistance (MR) measured simultaneously with the Hall resistance shows a sudden increase in the field region where the magnetization of the two GaMnAs layers is different. Although the MR ratio was observed to be only 0.04% in our trilayer structure (due to the experimental CIP configuration), the study clearly demonstrates the presence of spin scattering in a trilayer ferromagnetic semiconductor structure grown on a ZnMnSe buffer. © 2008 TMS.
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| 17. |
- Ciechonski, Rafal, et al.
(author)
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Effect of boron on the resistivity of compensated 4H-SiC
- 2003
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In: Journal of electronic materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 32:5, s. 452-457
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- High-resistivity 4H-SiC samples grown by sublimation with a high growth rate are studied. The measurements show resistivity values up to a high of 104 Ωcm. The secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) results revealed a presence of only common trace impurities such as nitrogen, aluminum, and boron. To understand the compensation mechanism in these samples, capacitance deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) on the p-type epilayers has been performed. By correlation between the growth conditions and SIMS results, we apply a model in which it is proposed that an isolated carbon vacancy donorlike level is a possible candidate responsible for compensation of the shallow acceptors in p-type 4H-SiC. A relation between cathodoluminescence (CL) and DLTS data is taken into account to support the model.
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| 18. |
- Danielsson, E., et al.
(author)
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Inductively coupled plasma etch damage in 4H-SiC investigated by Schottky diode characterization
- 2001
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 30:3, s. 247-252
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Ti Schottky diodes have been used to investigate the damage caused by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching of silicon carbide. The Schottky diodes were characterized using TV and CV measurements. An oxidation approach was tested in order to anneal the damage, and the diode characterization was used to determine the success of the annealing. The barrier height, leakage current, and ideality factor changed significantly on the sample exposed to the etch. When the etched samples were oxidized the electrical properties were recovered and were similar to the unetched reference sample (with oxidation temperatures ranging from 900 degreesC up to 1250 degreesC). Annealing in nitrogen at 1050 degreesC did not improve the electrical characteristics. A low energy etch showed little influence on the electrical characteristics, but since the etch rate was very low the etched depth may not be sufficient in order to reach a steady state condition for the surface damage.
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
- Ebrahimi, P., et al.
(author)
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Systematic Optimization of Boron Diffusion for Solar Cell Emitters
- 2017
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 46:7, s. 4236-4241
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- To achieve p-n junctions for n-type solar cells, we have studied BBr3 diffusion in an open tube furnace, varying parameters of the BBr3 diffusion process such as temperature, gas flows, and duration of individual process steps, i.e., predeposition and drive-in. Then, output parameters such as carrier lifetime, sheet resistance, and diffusion profile were measured and statistically analyzed to optimize the emitter characteristics. Statistical analysis (factorial design) was finally employed to systematically explore the effects of the set of input variables on the outputs. The effect of the interactions between inputs was also evaluated for each output, quantified using a two-level factorial method. Temperature and BBr3 flow were found to have the most significant effect on different outputs such as carrier lifetime, junction depth, sheet resistance, and final surface concentration.
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| 21. |
- Ekström, Mattias, et al.
(author)
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Integration and High-Temperature Characterization of Ferroelectric Vanadium-Doped Bismuth Titanate Thin Films on Silicon Carbide
- 2017
-
In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : SPRINGER. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 46:7, s. 4478-4484
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- 4H-SiC electronics can operate at high temperature (HT), e.g., 300A degrees C to 500A degrees C, for extended times. Systems using sensors and amplifiers that operate at HT would benefit from microcontrollers which can also operate at HT. Microcontrollers require nonvolatile memory (NVM) for computer programs. In this work, we demonstrate the possibility of integrating ferroelectric vanadium-doped bismuth titanate (BiTV) thin films on 4H-SiC for HT memory applications, with BiTV ferroelectric capacitors providing memory functionality. Film deposition was achieved by laser ablation on Pt (111)/TiO2/4H-SiC substrates, with magnetron-sputtered Pt used as bottom electrode and thermally evaporated Au as upper contacts. Film characterization by x-ray diffraction analysis revealed predominately (117) orientation. P-E hysteresis loops measured at room temperature showed maximum 2P (r) of 48 mu C/cm(2), large enough for wide read margins. P-E loops were measurable up to 450A degrees C, with losses limiting measurements above 450A degrees C. The phase-transition temperature was determined to be about 660A degrees C from the discontinuity in dielectric permittivity, close to what is achieved for ceramics. These BiTV ferroelectric capacitors demonstrate potential for use in HT NVM applications for SiC digital electronics.
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| 22. |
- Ekström, Mattias, et al.
(author)
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Investigation of a Self-Aligned Cobalt Silicide Process for Ohmic Contacts to Silicon Carbide
- 2019
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 48:4, s. 2509-2516
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Previous studies showed that cobalt silicide can form ohmic contacts to p-type 6H-SiC by directly reacting cobalt with 6H-SiC. Similar results can be achieved on 4H-SiC, given the similarities between the different silicon carbide polytypes. However, previous studies using multilayer deposition of silicon/cobalt on 4H-SiC gave ohmic contacts to n-type. In this study, we investigated the cobalt silicide/4H-SiC system to answer two research questions. Can cobalt contacts be self-aligned to contact holes to 4H-SiC? Are the self-aligned contacts ohmic to n-type, p-type, both or neither? Using x-ray diffraction, it was found that a mixture of silicides (Co2Si and CoSi) was reliably formed at 800°C using rapid thermal processing. The cobalt silicide mixture becomes ohmic to epitaxially grown n-type (1×1019cm-3) if annealed at 1000°C, while it shows rectifying properties to epitaxially grown p-type (1×1019cm-3) for all tested anneal temperatures in the range 800–1000°C. The specific contact resistivity (ρC) to n-type was 4.3×10-4 Ω cm2. This work opens the possibility to investigate other self-aligned contacts to silicon carbide.
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| 23. |
- Famengo, A., et al.
(author)
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Phase Content Influence on Thermoelectric Properties of Manganese Silicide-Based Materials for Middle-High Temperatures
- 2013
-
In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - New York : Springer. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 42:7, s. 2020-2024
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The higher manganese silicides (HMS), represented by MnSi (x) (x = 1.71 to 1.75), are promising p-type leg candidates for thermoelectric energy harvesting systems in the middle-high temperature range. They are very attractive as they could replace lead-based compounds due to their nontoxicity, low-cost starting materials, and high thermal and chemical stability. Dense pellets were obtained through direct reaction between Mn and Si powders during the spark plasma sintering process. The tetragonal HMS and cubic MnSi phase amounts and the functional properties of the material such as the Seebeck coefficient and electrical and thermal conductivity were evaluated as a function of the SPS processing conditions. The morphology, composition, and crystal structure of the samples were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction analyses, respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis were performed to evaluate the thermal stability of the final sintered material. A ZT value of 0.34 was obtained at 600A degrees C for the sample sintered at 900A degrees C and 90 MPa with 5 min holding time.
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| 24. |
- Fiameni, S., et al.
(author)
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Effect of Synthesis and Sintering Conditions on the Thermoelectric Properties of n-Doped Mg2Si
- 2014
-
In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 43:6, s. 2301-2306
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Magnesium silicide (Mg2Si)-based alloys are promising candidates for thermoelectric (TE) energy conversion in the middle-high temperature range. The detrimental effect of the presence of MgO on the TE properties of Mg2Si based materials is widely known. For this reason, the conditions used for synthesis and sintering were optimized to limit oxygen contamination. The effect of Bi doping on the TE performance of dense Mg2Si materials was also investigated. Synthesis was performed by ball milling in an inert atmosphere starting from commercial Mg2Si powder and Bi powder. The samples were consolidated, by spark plasma sintering, to a density > 95%. The morphology, and the composition and crystal structure of samples were characterized by field-emission scanning electronic microscopy and x-ray diffraction, respectively. Moreover, determination of Seebeck coefficients and measurement of electrical and thermal conductivity were performed for all the samples. Mg2Si with 0.1 mol% Bi doping had a ZT value of 0.81, indicative of the potential of this method for fabrication of n-type bulk material with good TE performance.
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| 25. |
- Fiameni, S., et al.
(author)
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Introduction of Metal Oxides into Mg2Si Thermoelectric Materials by Spark Plasma Sintering
- 2013
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In: Journal of Electronic Materials. - New York : Springer. - 0361-5235 .- 1543-186X. ; 42:7, s. 2062-2066
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Oxide incorporation into thermoelectric Mg2Si-based materials was performed starting from commercial Mg2Si and commercial metal oxides by applying ball milling and spark plasma sintering (SPS) processing. The SPS conditions, such as sintering temperature, pressure, and holding time, were optimized with the aim of obtaining both full densification and oxide incorporation. Thermoelectric characterizations, such as Seebeck coefficient and electrical and thermal conductivity, were carried out and related to the pellet compositions. The morphology, composition, and crystallographic structure of the samples were characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectrometry, and x-ray diffraction analyses, respectively.
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