| 1. |
- Sator, Lea, et al.
(author)
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Overdiagnosis of COPD in Subjects With Unobstructed Spirometry A BOLD Analysis
- 2019
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In: Chest. - : Elsevier BV. - 0012-3692 .- 1931-3543. ; 156:2, s. 277-288
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- BACKGROUND: There are several reports on underdiagnosis of COPD, while little is known about COPD overdiagnosis and overtreatment. We describe the overdiagnosis and the prevalence of spirometrically defined false positive COPD, as well as their relationship with overtreatment across 23 population samples in 20 countries participating in the BOLD Study between 2003 and 2012.METHODS: A false positive diagnosis of COPD was considered when participants reported a doctor's diagnosis of COPD, but postbronchodilator spirometry was unobstructed (FEV1/FVC > LLN). Additional analyses were performed using the fixed ratio criterion (FEV1/FVC < 0.7).RESULTS: Among 16,177 participants, 919 (5.7%) reported a previous medical diagnosis of COPD. Postbronchodilator spirometry was unobstructed in 569 subjects (61.9%): false positive COPD. A similar rate of overdiagnosis was seen when using the fixed ratio criterion (55.3%). In a subgroup analysis excluding participants who reported a diagnosis of "chronic bronchitis" or "emphysema" (n = 220), 37.7% had no airflow limitation. The site-specific prevalence of false positive COPD varied greatly, from 1.9% in low- to middle-income countries to 4.9% in high-income countries. In multivariate analysis, overdiagnosis was more common among women, and was associated with higher education; former and current smoking; the presence of wheeze, cough, and phlegm; and concomitant medical diagnosis of asthma or heart disease. Among the subjects with false positive COPD, 45.7% reported current use of respiratory medication. Excluding patients with reported asthma, 34.4% of those with normal spirometry still used a respiratory medication.CONCLUSIONS: False positive COPD is frequent. This might expose nonobstructed subjects to possible adverse effects of respiratory medication.
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| 2. |
- Andersson, Mike, et al.
(author)
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Field Effect Based Gas Sensors, from Basic Mechanisms to the Latest Commercial Device Designs
- 2016
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In: SENSORS AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION ADVANCES (SEIA). - : INT FREQUENCY SENSOR ASSOC-IFSA. - 9788460899631 ; , s. 19-21
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This contribution treats the latest developments in the understanding of basic principles regarding device design, transduction mechanisms, gas-materials-interactions, and materials processing for the tailored design and fabrication of SiC FET gas sensor devices, mainly intended as products for the automotive sector.
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| 3. |
- Axberg Pålsson, Sandra, et al.
(author)
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Single-Stranded Oligonucleotide-Mediated Inhibition of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection
- 2020
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In: Frontiers in Immunology. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 1664-3224. ; 11
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections in young children. Currently, there is no RSV vaccine or universally accessible antiviral treatment available. Addressing the urgent need for new antiviral agents, we have investigated the capacity of a non-coding single-stranded oligonucleotide (ssON) to inhibit RSV infection. By utilizing a GFP-expressing RSV, we demonstrate that the ssON significantly reduced the proportion of RSV infected A549 cells (lung epithelial cells). Furthermore, we show that ssON's antiviral activity was length dependent and that both RNA and DNA of this class of oligonucleotides have antiviral activity. We reveal that ssON inhibited RSV infection by competing with the virus for binding to the cellular receptor nucleolin in vitro. Additionally, using a recombinant RSV that expresses luciferase we show that ssON effectively blocked RSV infection in mice. Treatment with ssON in vivo resulted in the upregulation of RSV-induced interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) such as Stat1, Stat2, Cxcl10, and Ccl2. This study highlights the possibility of using oligonucleotides as therapeutic agents against RSV infection. We demonstrate that the mechanism of action of ssON is the inhibition of viral entry in vitro, likely through the binding of the receptor, nucleolin and that ssON treatment against RSV infection in vivo additionally results in the upregulation of ISGs.
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| 4. |
- Baranzahi, Amir, et al.
(author)
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Chemical sensors with catalytic metal gates - Switching behavior and kinetic phase transitions
- 1998
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In: Journal of the Electrochemical Society. - : Electrochemical Society. - 0013-4651 .- 1945-7111. ; 145:10, s. 3401-3406
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Rapid transitions in the response of platinum-based chemical sensors occurring at given hydrogen-oxygen concentration ratios are explained by kinetic phase transitions or switching phenomena on the catalytic metal surface. Below the transition point the response of platinum-insulator silicon carbide devices is small and above the transition it is large. It is found that the critical ratio depends on the operation temperature and the properties of the device. Three different cases are identified, namely, injection-, diffusion-, and reaction-rate-determined transitions. At sufficiently large temperatures the transition is injection limited and occurs at the stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in the gas mixture. The implications of the experimental observations on the applications of chemical sensors with catalytic sensing layers are discussed.
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| 5. |
- Baranzahi, Amir, et al.
(author)
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Kinectic phase transitions and chemical sensors with catalytic metal gates
- 1997
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In: Chemical & Biological Sensors & Analytical Electrochemical Methods, 1997. - : Electrochemical Society. - 9781566771474 - 1566771471 ; , s. 1-15
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Rapid transitions in the response of platinum based chemical sensors occurring at given hydrogen-oxygen concentration ratios are explained by kinetic phase transitions or switching phenomena on the catalytic metal surface. Below the transition point the response of platinum-insulator silicon carbide devices is small and above the transition large and almost saturated. It is found that the critical ratio depends on the operation temperature and the properties of the device. Three different cases are identified, namely injection-, diffusion- and reaction rate determined transitions. At sufficiently large temperatures the transition is injection limited and occurs at the stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in the gas mixture. The implications of the experimental observations on the applications of chemical sensors with catalytic sensing layers are discussed.
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| 6. |
- Bastuck, Manuel, et al.
(author)
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Low-cost chemical gas sensors for selective formaldehyde quantification at ppb-level in field tests
- 2017
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Data from a silicon carbide based field-effect transistor were recorded over a period of nine days in a ventilated school room. For enhanced sensitivity and selectivity especially to formaldehyde, porous iridium on pulsed laser deposited tungsten trioxide was used as sensitive layer, in combination with temperature cycled operation and subsequent multivariate data processing techniques. The sensor signal was compared to reference measurements for formaldehyde concentration, CO2 concentration, temperature, and relative humidity. The results show a distinct pattern for the reference formaldehyde concentration, arising from the day/night cycle. Taking this into account, the projections of both principal component analysis and partial least squares regression lead to almost the same result concerning correlation to the reference. The sensor shows cross-sensitivity to an unidentified component of human activity, presumably breath, and, possibly, to other compounds appearing together with formaldehyde in indoor air. Nevertheless, the sensor is able to detect and partially quantify formaldehyde below 40 ppb with a correlation to the reference of 0.48 and negligible interference from ambient temperature or relative humidity.
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| 7. |
- Belov, Ilja, et al.
(author)
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CFD analysis of packaging and mounting solutions for SiC-based gas sensors in automotive applications
- 2006
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In: Sensor Letters. - 1546-198X. ; 4:1, s. 29-37
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Simulation-based guidelines were developed for designing tube-mounted gas sensors in the exhaust pipes of diesel and petrol engines, taking into account thermal constraints and gas flow conditions. Different block and tube mounting alternatives for SiC-based gas sensors were studied by means of temperature measurements and simulation of steady state heat transfer and gas flow. Design variables included the number of fins in the heat sink mounted on the inlet tube, the inlet construction, the mounting tube orientation, and the micro-heater substrate placement inside the mounting tube. The most preferable tube mounting design was determined with respect to the thermal performance of the sensor structure and with respect to the gas flow parameters, which are important for the sensor's selectivity, sensitivity and response time.
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| 8. |
- Belov, Ilja, et al.
(author)
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Thermal and flow analysis of SiC-based gas sensors for automotive applications
- 2004
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In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Microelectronics and Microsystems, 2004. - : IEEE. - 0780384202 ; , s. 475-482
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Different block and tube mounting alternatives for SiC-based gas sensors were studied by means of temperature measurements and simulation of heat transfer and gas flow for steady state conditions. The most preferable tube mounting design was determined. Simulation-based guidelines were developed for designing tube-mounted gas sensors in the exhaust pipes of diesel and petrol engines, taking into account thermal constraints and flow conditions.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
- Bunnfors, Kalle, et al.
(author)
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Nanoparticle activated neutrophils-on-a-chip : A label-free capacitive sensor to monitor cells at work
- 2020
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In: Sensors and actuators. B, Chemical. - : Elsevier. - 0925-4005 .- 1873-3077. ; 313
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Neutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant white blood cells in mammals and vital components of the immune system. They are involved in the early phase of inflammation and in generation of reactive oxygen species. These rapid cell-signaling communicative processes are performed in the time frame of minutes. In this work, the activity and the response of neutrophil granulocytes are monitored when triggered by cerium-oxide based nanoparticles, using capacitive sensors based on Lab-on-a-chip technology. The chip is designed to monitor activation processes of cells during nanoparticle exposure, which is for the first time recorded on-line as alteration of the capacitance. The complementary metal oxide semiconductor engineering chip design is combined with low temperature co-fired ceramic, LTCC, packaging technology. The method is label free and gently measures cells on top of an insulating surface in a weak electromagnetic field, as compared to commonly used four-point probes and impedance spectroscopy electric measurements where electrodes are in direct contact with the cells. In summary, this label free method is used to measure oxidative stress of neutrophil granulocytes in real time, minute by minute and visualize the difference in moderate and high cellular workload during exposure of external triggers. It clearly shows the capability of this method to detect cell response during exposure of external triggers. In this way, an informationally dense non-invasive method is obtained, to monitor cells at work.
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| 11. |
- Bur, Christian, et al.
(author)
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Increasing the Selectivity of Pt-Gate SiC Field Effect Gas Sensors by Dynamic Temperature Modulation
- 2012
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In: IEEE Sensors Journal. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). - 1530-437X .- 1558-1748. ; 12:6
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Based on a diode coupled silicon carbide field effect transistor (FET) with platinum as catalytic gate material, the influence of dynamic temperature modulation on the selectivity of gas analysis sensors FETs has been investigated. This operating mode, studied intensively for semiconductor gas sensors, has only recently been applied to FETs. A suitable temperature cycle for detection of typical exhaust gases (CO, NO, C3H6, H-2, NH3) was developed and combined with appropriate signal processing. The sensor data were evaluated using multivariate statistics, e.g., linear discriminant analysis. Measurements have proven that typical exhaust gases can be discriminated in backgrounds with 0, 10, and 20% oxygen. Furthermore, we are able to quantify the mentioned gases and to determine unknown concentrations based on training data. Very low levels of relative humidity below a few percent influence the sensor response considerably but for higher levels the cross interference of humidity is negligible. In addition, experiments regarding stability and reproducibility were performed.
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| 12. |
- Bur, Christian, et al.
(author)
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New method for selectivity enhancement of SiC field effect gas sensors for quantification of NO (x)
- 2012
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In: Microsystem Technologies. - : Springer Verlag (Germany). - 0946-7076 .- 1432-1858. ; 18:7-8, s. 1015-1025
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- A silicon carbide based enhancement type metal insulator field effect transistor with porous gate metallization has been investigated as a total NO (x) sensor operated in a temperature cycling mode. This operating mode is quite new for gas sensors based on the field effect but promising results have been reported earlier. Based on static investigations we have developed a suitable T-cycle optimized for NO (x) detection and quantification in a mixture of typical exhaust gases (CO, C2H4, and NH3). Significant features describing the shape of the sensor response have been extracted and evaluated with multivariate statistics (e.g. linear discriminant analysis) allowing quantification of NO (x) . Additional cleaning-cycles every 30 min improve the stability of the sensor further. With this kind of advanced signal processing the influence of sensor drift and cross sensitivity to ambient gases can be reduced effectively. Measurements have proven that different concentrations of NO (x) can be detected even in a changing mixture of other typical exhaust gases under dry and humid conditions. In addition to that, unknown concentrations of NO (x) can be detected based on a small set of training data. It can be concluded that the performance of GasFETs for NO (x) determination can be enhanced considerably with temperature cycling and appropriate signal processing.
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| 13. |
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| 14. |
- Dalmo, Johanna, et al.
(author)
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Biodistribution of 177Lu-octreotate and 111In-minigastrin in female nude mice transplanted with human medullary thyroid carcinoma GOT2.
- 2012
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In: Oncology reports. - : Spandidos Publications. - 1791-2431 .- 1021-335X. ; 27:1, s. 174-181
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- To be able to evaluate new radiopharmaceuticals and optimize diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, relevant animal models are required. The aim of this study was to evaluate the medullary thyroid carcinoma GOT2 animal model by analyzing the biodistribution of 177Lu-octreotate and 111In-minigastrin (MG0). BALB/c nude mice, subcutaneously transplanted with GOT2, were intravenously injected with either 177Lu-octreotate or 111In-MG0, with or without excess of unlabeled human minigastrin simultaneously with 111In-MG0. Animals were sacrificed 1-7 days after injection in the 177Lu-octreotate study and 1h after injection of 111In-MG0. The activity concentrations in organs and tissues were determined and mean absorbed doses from 177Lu were calculated. There was a specific tumor uptake of either 177Lu-octreotate or 111In-MG0. 177Lu-octreotate samples showed high activity concentrations in tissues expressing somatostatin receptors (SSTR). For both radiopharmaceuticals the highest activity concentrations were found in the kidneys. Compared to results from similar studies in mice with another MTC cell line (TT) the biodistribution was favorable (higher tumor uptake) for the GOT2 model, while compared to other animal models expressing SSTR, the tumor uptake of 177Lu-octreotate was modest. In conclusion, the GOT2 animal model is a valuable model for evaluation and optimization of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures using radiolabeled somatostatin, CCK2 and gastrin analogues prior to clinical studies.
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| 15. |
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| 16. |
- Darmastuti, Zhafira, et al.
(author)
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SiC-FET based SO2 sensor for power plant emission applications
- 2014
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In: Sensors and actuators. B, Chemical. - : Elsevier. - 0925-4005 .- 1873-3077. ; 194, s. 511-520
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Thermal power plants produce SO2 during combustion of fuel containing sulfur. One way to decrease the SO2 emission from power plants is to introduce a sensor as part of the control system of the desulphurization unit. In this study, SiC-FET sensors were studied as one alternative sensor to replace the expensive FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) instrument or the inconvenient wet chemical methods. The gas response for the SiC-FET sensors comes from the interaction between the test gas and the catalytic gate metal, which changes the electrical characteristics of the devices. The performance of the sensors depends on the ability of the test gas to be adsorbed, decomposed, and desorbed at the sensor surface. The feature of SO2, that it is difficult to desorb from the catalyst surface, makes it known as catalyst poison. It is difficult to quantify the SO2 with static operation, even at the optimum operation temperature of the sensor due to low response levels and saturation already at low concentration of SO2. The challenge of SO2 desorption can be reduced by introducing dynamic operation in a designed temperature cycle operation (TCO). The intermittent exposure to high temperature can help to desorb SO2. Simultaneously, additional features extracted from the sensor data can be used to reduce the influence of sensor drift. The TCO operation, together with pattern recognition, may also reduce the baseline and response variation due to changing concentration of background gases (4-10% O-2 and 0-70% RH), and thus it may improve the overall sensor performance. In addition to the laboratory experiment, testing in the desulphurization pilot unit was performed. Desulphurization pilot unit has less controlled environment compared to the laboratory conditions. Therefore, the risk of influence from the changing concentration of background gas is higher. In this study, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and partial least square (PLS) were employed as pattern recognition methods. It was demonstrated that using LDA quantification of SO2 into several groups of concentrations up to 2000 ppm was possible. Additionally, PLS analysis indicated a good agreement between the predicted value from the model and the SO2 concentration from the reference instrument of the pilot plant.
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| 17. |
- Datta, Timir, et al.
(author)
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Integration of CMOS Chips into LOCs for Cell-Based Sensing
- 2014
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In: Proceedings of Biosensors 2014, Australia.
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Incorporating complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chips that can perform signal processing, control, information readout, and direct sensing into microfluidic systems adds powerful capabilities to lab on a chip (LOC) devices. For example, on-chip sensors allow system miniaturization, amplifiers placed directly under the sensors provide high signal to noise ratios (SNRs), and signal processing circuitry reduces the amount of data that must be communicated off-chip. Packaging such chips to expose the sensors on the surface to a fluid environment while protecting the input/output region at the periphery has been challenging, however. We present a new packaging method based on forming an epoxy handle wafer around the chip, photolithographic patterning of metal and polymer films for interconnection and passivation, and bonding to PDMS microfluidics. Such packaged chips last for months in the incubator and can be sterilized and re-used. We will show two examples of cell-based sensing with these systems using chips produced in a commercially-available CMOS technology: monitoring the cytotoxicity of nanomaterials through capacitance changes and recording action potentials from electrogenic cells. Adherent cells normally spread out on surfaces, while stressed cells contract and apoptosis leads to detachment. A chip was produced consisting of an array of fully differential capacitance sensors and readout circuitry. Cells (kidney, Cercopithecus aethiops) were cultured on the chip surface to confluence and then exposed to cytotoxic TiO2 nanowires. Cell viability was evaluated with both the chip and a commercial cytotoxicity kit. Preliminary results indicate that viability can be monitored by capacitance measurements. In the second example, a cluster of cardiomyocytes was cultured on the surface of a different chip having an array of electrodes connected to on-chip amplifiers. Electrical recordings showed strong action potentials from the cluster, corresponding in time with the beating of the clump. The signal amplitude decreased with distance to the electrodes, as expected
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| 18. |
- Ezzat, Kariem, et al.
(author)
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The viral protein corona directs viral pathogenesis and amyloid aggregation
- 2019
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In: Nature Communications. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2041-1723. ; 10
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Artificial nanoparticles accumulate a protein corona layer in biological fluids, which significantly influences their bioactivity. As nanosized obligate intracellular parasites, viruses share many biophysical properties with artificial nanoparticles in extracellular environments and here we show that respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) accumulate a rich and distinctive protein corona in different biological fluids. Moreover, we show that corona pre-coating differentially affects viral infectivity and immune cell activation. In addition, we demonstrate that viruses bind amyloidogenic peptides in their corona and catalyze amyloid formation via surface-assisted heterogeneous nucleation. Importantly, we show that HSV-1 catalyzes the aggregation of the amyloid beta-peptide (A beta(42)), a major constituent of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease, in vitro and in animal models. Our results highlight the viral protein corona as an acquired structural layer that is critical for viral-host interactions and illustrate a mechanistic convergence between viral and amyloid pathologies.
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
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| 21. |
- Halonen, Niina, et al.
(author)
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Low temperature co-fired ceramic package for lab-on-CMOS applied in cell viability monitoring
- 2015
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In: Eurosensors 2015. - : Elsevier BV. ; , s. 1079-1082
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Lab-on-CMOS chips (LOCMOS) are sophisticated miniaturized analysis tools based on integrated circuit (IC) microchips performing various laboratory functions. We have developed a low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) package for a LOCMOS application regarding cytotoxicity assessment of nanomaterials. The LTCC packaged capacitance sensor chip is designed for long-term cell viability monitoring during nanoparticle exposure. The introduced LTCC package utilizes the flip chip bonding technique, and it is biocompatible as well as able to withstand the environmental conditions required to maintain mammalian cell culture directly on the surface of a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) integrated circuit.
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| 22. |
- Halonen, Niina, et al.
(author)
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Low temperature co-fired ceramic packaging of CMOS capacitive sensor chip towards cell viability monitoring
- 2016
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In: Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. - : BEILSTEIN-INSTITUT. - 2190-4286. ; 7, s. 1871-1877
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Cell viability monitoring is an important part of biosafety evaluation for the detection of toxic effects on cells caused by nanomaterials, preferably by label-free, noninvasive, fast, and cost effective methods. These requirements can be met by monitoring cell viability with a capacitance-sensing integrated circuit (IC) microchip. The capacitance provides a measurement of the surface attachment of adherent cells as an indication of their health status. However, the moist, warm, and corrosive biological environment requires reliable packaging of the sensor chip. In this work, a second generation of low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) technology was combined with flip-chip bonding to provide a durable package compatible with cell culture. The LTCC-packaged sensor chip was integrated with a printed circuit board, data acquisition device, and measurement-controlling software. The packaged sensor chip functioned well in the presence of cell medium and cells, with output voltages depending on the medium above the capacitors. Moreover, the manufacturing of microfluidic channels in the LTCC package was demonstrated.
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| 23. |
- Järver, Peter, et al.
(author)
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Single-Stranded Nucleic Acids Regulate TLR3/4/7 Activation through Interference with Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis
- 2018
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In: Scientific Reports. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2045-2322. ; 8
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Recognition of nucleic acids by endosomal Toll-like receptors (TLR) is essential to combat pathogens, but requires strict control to limit inflammatory responses. The mechanisms governing this tight regulation are unclear. We found that single-stranded oligonucleotides (ssON) inhibit endocytic pathways used by cargo destined for TLR3/4/7 signaling endosomes. Both ssDNA and ssRNA conferred the endocytic inhibition, it was concentration dependent, and required a certain ssON length. The ssON-mediated inhibition modulated signaling downstream ofTLRs that localized within the affected endosomal pathway. We further show that injection of ssON dampens dsRNA-mediated inflammatory responses in the skin of non-human primates. These studies reveal a regulatory role for extracellular ssON in the endocytic uptake of TLR ligands and provide a mechanistic explanation of their immunomodulation. The identified ssON-mediated interference of endocytosis (SOMIE) is a regulatory process that temporarily dampens TLR3/4/7 signaling, thereby averting excessive immune responses.
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| 24. |
- Keehnen, Naomi, et al.
(author)
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Geographic variation in hemocyte diversity and phagocytic propensity shows a diffuse genomic signature in the green veined white butterfly
- 2024
-
Other publication (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Insects rely on their innate immune system to successfully mediate complex interactions with their internal microbiota, as well as the microbes present in the environment. Given the variation in microbes across habitats, the challenges to respond to them is likely to result in local adaptation in the immune system. Here we focus upon phagocytosis, a mechanism by which pathogens and foreign particles are engulfed in order to be contained, killed and processed for antigen presentation. We investigated the phenotypic and genetic variation related to phagocytosis, in two allopatric populations of the butterfly Pieris napi. We found that the populations differ in their hemocyte composition, and overall phagocytic capability, driven by the increased phagocytic propensity of each cell type. However, no evidence for divergence in phagocytosis-related genes was observed, though an enrichment of genes involved in glutamine metabolism was found, which have recently been linked to immune cell differentiation in mammals.
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| 25. |
- Keehnen, Naomi L.P., et al.
(author)
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A Population Genomic Investigation of Immune Cell Diversity and Phagocytic Capacity in a Butterfly
- 2021
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In: Genes. - : MDPI AG. - 2073-4425. ; 12:2
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Insects rely on their innate immune system to successfully mediate complex interactions with their internal microbiota, as well as the microbes present in the environment. Given the variation in microbes across habitats, the challenges to respond to them are likely to result in local adaptations in the immune system. Here we focus upon phagocytosis, a mechanism by which pathogens and foreign particles are engulfed in order to be contained, killed, and processed. We investigated the phenotypic and genetic variation related to phagocytosis in two allopatric populations of the butterfly Pieris napi. Populations were found to differ in their hemocyte composition and overall phagocytic capability, driven by the increased phagocytic propensity of each cell type. Yet, genes annotated to phagocytosis showed no large genomic signal of divergence. However, a gene set enrichment analysis on significantly divergent genes identified loci involved in glutamine metabolism, which recently have been linked to immune cell differentiation in mammals. Together these results suggest that heritable variation in phagocytic capacity arises via a quantitative trait architecture with variation in genes affecting the activation and/or differentiation of phagocytic cells, suggesting them as potential candidate genes underlying these phenotypic differences.
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