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1.	Ekholm, Anders, et al. (author) A concept of space for building classification, product modelling, and design 2000 In: Automation in Construction. - 0926-5805. ; 9, s. 315-328 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Information about a building's spaces is of interest in every stage of the construction and facility management processes. An organisation1 or enterprise is located in and uses the building's spaces, and many of the building's spatial properties are determined on the basis of the user organisation's requirements. The definition of the concept “space” as applied in information systems for building classification and building product modelling today is unclear. A fundamental problem is to reconcile a material and construction method viewpoint with a space-centred viewpoint. In order to enable communication among actors and computer systems in the construction process, the concepts used in model development and the corresponding terms have to be formally defined and standardised. In this article, we analyse the concept of space and suggest a comprehensive definition for the construction context. The identification of a space in a building is based on a spatial view. We introduce the concept of aspectual unit and show how this concept can be used to integrate different aspect views in a conceptual schema. Additionally, we define the user organisation as a thing, which is separate from the building and has spatial properties of its own, so-called “activity spaces”. Finally, we show how space may be represented in a comprehensive conceptual schema.
2.	Belloni, Valeria, et al. (author) Crack Monitoring from Motion (CMfM) : Crack detection and measurement using cameras with non-fixed positions 2023 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 156 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The assessment of cracks in civil infrastructures commonly relies on visual inspections carried out at night, resulting in limited inspection time and an increased risk of crack oversight. The Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique, employed in structural monitoring, requires stationary cameras for image collection, which proves challenging for long-term monitoring. This paper describes the Crack Monitoring from Motion (CMfM) methodology for automatically detecting and measuring cracks using non-fixed cameras, combining Convolutional Neural Networks and photogrammetry. Through evaluation using images obtained from laboratory tests on concrete beams and subsequent comparison with DIC and a pointwise sensor, CMfM demonstrates accurate crack width computation within a few hundredths of a millimetre when compared to the sensor. This method exhibits potential for effectively monitoring temporal crack evolution using non-fixed cameras.
3.	Bhatt, Mehul, Professor, 1980-, et al. (author) Architecture, computing, and design assistance 2013 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 32, s. 161-164 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Design is one of the most complex of human endeavors requiring an enormous number of often conflicting criteria to be contemplated when identifying optimal solutions. Design is constrained by guidelines, codes, and standards applicable to the specific cultural and locational context that the design will be sited. Furthermore, a design has to be created within a collaborative team consisting of many professionals focused on specific subsystems and expert preferences that provide unique functionality to the overall design. The increasing use and capability of software tools involved in the creation and processing of such spatial information has also led to elevated levels of complexity that spurred a need to structure, query and reason about multiple spatial representations of buildings and their components in new ways.
4.	Borngrund, Carl, 1992-, et al. (author) Deep-learning-based vision for earth-moving automation 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 133 Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract Earth-moving machines are heavy-duty vehicles designed for construction operations involving earthworks. The tasks performed by such machines typically involve navigation and interaction with materials such as soil, gravel, and blasted rock. Skilled operators use a combination of visual, sound, tactile and possibly motion feedback to perform tasks efficiently. We survey the literature in this research area and analyse the relative importance of different sensor system modalities focusing on deep-learning-based vision and automation for the short-cycle loading task. This is a common and repetitive task that is attractive to automate. The analysis indicates that computer vision, in combination with onboard sensors, is more critical than coordinate-based positioning. Furthermore, we find that data-driven approaches, in general, have high potential in terms of productivity, adaptability, versatility and wear and tear with respect to automation system solutions. The main knowledge gaps identified relate to loading non-fine heterogeneous material and navigation during loading and unloading.
5.	Bosch-Sijtsema, Petra, 1971, et al. (author) Professional development of the BIM actor role 2019 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 97, s. 44-51 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The implementation of building information modeling (BIM) has resulted in the development of new roles for BIM actors, but few empirical studies have been conducted on how these roles develop professionally. The present study investigates the professional development of the BIM actor and how this role is perceived by BIM actors and non-BIM actors in Sweden. The study uses a questionnaire (N=342) in eight companies, comprised of contractors, architects, and clients. The BIM and non-BIM actors were compared on similarities and significant differences in their characteristics, tasks, experience, education, and barriers to the role’s development. We found that BIM actors perceive their role, characteristics, tasks and education as coordinating and driving change. However, non-BIM actors perceive the BIM actor role as focusing more on technical skills than on softer skills. The perceptions of the two groups indicate possible tensions toward the future professional development of the BIM actor role.
6.	Brozovsky, Johannes, et al. (author) Digital technologies in architecture, engineering, and construction 2024 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 158 Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract Digitalization in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector is slow due to significant challenges in technology adoption. The study aims to promote technology adoption by advancing the understanding of digital technologies in the AEC sector. This article presents the findings from a quantitative scoping review, encompassing 3950 technology-related abstracts retrieved from the Scopus database, providing a preliminary assessment of literature size, geographic innovation hotspots, research gaps, and key concepts in the AEC field. The results show that Building Information Modelling (1852 studies) dominates the literature, while topics like 3D Printing (311) and Internet of Things (227) are gaining traction. China (687 publications) and the United States (566) produce most research articles. Despite the increasing interest in emerging technologies, their implementation often necessitates acquiring specific skill sets. Academia needs to put a stronger focus on these technologies in education and tighter collaboration with the industry is needed.
7.	Bröchner, Jan, 1948, et al. (author) Changes and change management in construction and IT projects 2011 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 20:7, s. 767-775 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Modelling for change management in construction might benefit from experiences from other industries. This study compares reasons for change as well as change practices in interorganizational relationships in construction and information technology. Sixteen contractual relationships have been studied through a questionnaire and interview survey conducted among both clients and providers. Project-type relations are contrasted with more continuous service support contracts. More than their providers, clients tend to ascribe high change frequencies to an increase in technical understanding during projects. Early provider participation is associated with lower change frequencies, while the strength of incentives is less influential. The ease of transforming changes into new projects varies between technologies. Irreversibility is important, as well as relations between pre-investigations and the successive revealing of initial conditions, together with the life-cycle of formal and informal communication. Findings can be used for transfer of agile practices. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
8.	Cheng, J. C. P., et al. (author) A service oriented framework for construction supply chain integration 2010 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 19:2, s. 245-260 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The benefits of integrating and coordinating supply chain partners have been well recognized in many industries. In the construction industry, supply chain integration is technically challenging due to the high fragmentation of the industry. Information, applications, and services are loosely distributed among participants with a wide range of hardware and software capabilities. In addition, participants are often unwilling to share information because the temporary nature of construction projects often impedes the establishment of trust. A secure, modular, and flexible system that can aggregate scattered information and share that information across applications is, therefore, highly desirable. We have prototyped a service oriented, web-based system that can provide both these capabilities. Called the SC Collaborator, this system facilitates the flexible coordination of construction supply chains by leveraging web services, web portal, and open source technologies. These technologies enable the SC Collaborator system to provide an economical and customizable tool for integrating supply chain partners with a wide range of computing capabilities. This paper describes the overall architecture and the features of the system. Two example scenarios are included to demonstrate the potential of SC Collaborator in integrating and managing information from project partners. The first scenario is an e-Procurement example whereas the second is a rescheduling scenario based on the data from a completed project in Sweden. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
9.	Dadhich, Siddharth, 1987-, et al. (author) Field test of neural-network based automatic bucket-filling algorithm for wheel-loaders 2019 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 97, s. 1-12 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Automation of earth-moving industries (construction, mining and quarry) require automatic bucket-filling algorithms for efficient operation of front-end loaders. Autonomous bucket-filling is an open problem since three decades due to difficulties in developing useful earth models (soil, gravel and rock) for automatic control. Operators make use of vision, sound and vestibular feedback to perform the bucket-filling operation with high productivity and fuel efficiency. In this paper, field experiments with a small time-delayed neural network (TDNN) implemented in the bucket control-loop of a Volvo L180H front-end loader filling medium coarse gravel are presented. The total delay time parameter of the TDNN is found to be an important hyperparameter due to the variable delay present in the hydraulics of the wheel-loader. The TDNN network successfully performs the bucket-filling operation after an initial period (100 examples) of imitation learning from an expert operator. The demonstrated solution show only 26% longer bucket-filling time, an improvement over manual tele-operation performance.
10.	Dadhich, Siddharth, et al. (author) Key challenges in automation of earth-moving machines 2016 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 68, s. 212-222 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract A wheel loader is an earth-moving machine used in construction sites, gravel pits and mining to move blasted rock, soil and gravel. In the presence of a nearby dump truck, the wheel loader is said to be operating in a short loading cycle. This paper concerns the moving of material (soil, gravel and fragmented rock) by a wheel loader in a short loading cycle with more emphasis on the loading step. Due to the complexity of bucket-environment interactions, even three decades of research efforts towards automation of the bucket loading operation have not yet resulted in any fully autonomous system. This paper highlights the key challenges in automation and tele-remote operation of earth-moving machines and provides a survey of different areas of research within the scope of the earth-moving operation. The survey of publications presented in this paper is conducted with an aim to highlight the previous and ongoing research work in this field with an effort to strike a balance between recent and older publications. Another goal of the survey is to identify the research areas in which knowledge essential to automate the earth moving process is lagging behind. The paper concludes by identifying the knowledge gaps to give direction to future research in this field.
11.	Dave, Bhargav, et al. (author) A framework for integrating BIM and IoT through open standards 2018 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 95, s. 35-45 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The built environment provides significant opportunities for IoT (Internet of Things) deployment, and can be singled out as one of the most important aspects for IoT related research. While the IoT deployment in the built environment is growing exponentially, there exists a gap in integrating these two in a systematic way through open standards and systems. From technological perspective, there is a need for convergence of diverse fields ranging from Building Information Systems and Building Services to Building Automation Systems, and IoT devices and finally the end user services to develop smart, user oriented applications.This paper outlines the efforts to develop a platform that integrates the built environment data with IoT sensors in a campus wide, web based system called Otaniemi3D that provides information about energy usage, occupancy and user comfort by integrating Building Information Models and IoT devices through open messaging standards (O-MI and O-DF) and IFC models. The paper describes the design criteria, the system architecture, the workflow and a proof of concept with potential use cases that integrate IoT with the built environment. Initial results show that both the end users and other research groups can benefit from such platforms by either consuming the data in their daily life or using the data for more advance research.
12.	Edrees, Tarek, et al. (author) Comfort level identification for irregular multi-storey building 2015 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 50, s. 40-49 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract In this article, the System Identification approach is being used to identify the vertical frequencies of the top storey in a multi-storey building prefabricated from reinforced concrete in Stockholm. Before building construction, detailed investigation indicated that the building will not be affected by train vibrations from the nearby railway yard. After building completion, disturbing vibrations were observed in the building. Three measurement types namely: ambient vibration test, forced vibration test on the rails, and forced vibration test have been performed in order to specify the probable reasons for these vibrations.Five methods of structural identification approach, specifically: ARX, ARMAX, BJ, OEand State Space Models have been implemented for the identification process in this study usingthe tests' results. All the test types and model structures utilized have identified a concentration inthe floor only, which is close to the frequencies of human body parts. Furthermore, the article concludes that the ARMAX model and the Output Error model have indicated an excellent performance to predict the mathematical models of vibration's propagation in the building, when compared with other models used from the three types of tests.In addition, the results of the aforementioned system identification methods, implemented for this study, have indicated that there are no other reasons for the disturbing vibrations still observed in the building. Furthermore, the results confirmed the correctness of the previous theoretical and experimental results obtained by different specialists, who stated that the values of floor acceleration are within the acceptable limits, and the probable reason for any disturbance is the resonance between the generated low frequencies and the human body parts’ frequencies.
13.	Einberg, Gery, et al. (author) CFD Modelling as a Part of Integrated Design Process for Optimised Indoor Environment In: Automation in Construction. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. Journal article (other academic/artistic)
14.	Frank, Bobbie, et al. (author) Optimal control of wheel loader actuators in gravel applications 2018 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 91, s. 1-14 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The paper is about finding the global optimum for a wheel loader work cycle in a gravel application. This includes simulating the gravel and extracting the trajectories for the main actuators; propulsion, lift and tilt, during the work cycle. The optimal control method is dynamic programming and the optimum is calculated with regard to fuel efficiency [ton/l] but can be weighted towards productivity [ton/h]. The analytical optimal control results are compared to an extensive empirical measurement done on a wheel loader and shows around 15% higher fuel efficiency compared to the highest fuel efficiency measured among real operators.
15.	Fredriksson, Anna, 1979-, et al. (author) Construction related urban disturbances : Identification and linking with an IoT-model 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 134 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract While being a significant part of the urban development, construction projects disturb different stakeholders in various ways. There are three problems associated with construction disturbances: (i) most of these disturbances are not recognised by the people causing them, (ii) they are not monitored and (iii) if they are to be monitored, data is spread among stakeholders. This paper defines what a disturbance is, presents a list of disturbances, linking disturbances to stakeholders and, categorising them based on their distance from construction sites (responding to (i)). Next, a IoT domain model is developed, demonstrating how IoT in construction needs to be combined with the sensors of smart cities to capture the primitives of these disturbances (responding to (iii)). This is a first step towards enabling large-scale data-gathering of construction transport disturbances (responding to (ii)), which is a necessity to predict them and allow better construction transport planning to decrease disturbances.
16.	Fu, Jiali, et al. (author) Identification of workstations in earthwork operations from vehicle GPS data 2017 In: Automation in Construction. - : ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 83, s. 237-246 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The paper proposes a methodology for the identification of workstations in earthwork operations based on GPS traces from construction vehicles. The model incorporates relevant information extracted from the GPS data to infer locations of different workstations as probability distributions over the environment. Monitoring of workstation locations may support map inference for generating and continuously updating the layout and road network topology of the construction environment. A case study is conducted at a complex earthwork site in Sweden. The workstation identification methodology is used to infer the locations of loading stations based on vehicle speeds and interactions between vehicles, and the locations of dumping stations based on vehicle turning patterns. The results show that the proposed method is able to identify workstations in the earthwork environment efficiently and in sufficient detail.
17.	Gamil, Yaser, et al. (author) Formwork pressure prediction in cast-in-place self-compacting concrete using deep learning 2023 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier B.V.. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 151 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The prediction of formwork pressure exerted by self-compacting concrete (SCC) remains a challenge not only to researchers but also to engineers and contractors on the construction site. This article aims to utilize shallow neural networks (SNN) and deep neural networks (DNN) using Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) approach to develop a prediction model based on real-time data acquitted from controllable laboratory testing series. A test setup consisting of a two-meter-high column, ø160 mm, was prepared and tested in the laboratory. A digital pressure monitoring system was used to collect and transfer the data to the cloud on a real-time basis. The pressure was monitored during- and after casting, following the pressure build-up and reduction, respectively. The two main parameters affecting the form pressure, i.e., casting rate and slump flow, were varied to collect a wide range of input data for the analysis. The proposed model by DNN was able to accurately predict the pressure behavior based on the input data from the laboratory tests with high-performance indicators and multiple hidden layers. The results showed that the pressure is significantly affected by the casting rate, while the slump flow had rather lower impact. The proposed model can be a useful and reliable tool at the construction site to closely predict the pressure development and the effects of variations in casting rate and slump flow. The model provides the opportunity to increase safety and speeding up construction while avoiding costly and time-consuming effects of oversized formwork.
18.	Gulisano, Federico, et al. (author) Piezoresistive behavior of electric arc furnace slag and graphene nanoplatelets asphalt mixtures for self-sensing pavements 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 142 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Self-sensing road pavements can autonomously monitor their stress/strain and damage states without the need for embedded sensors. This kind of multifunctional pavements could be used for the realisation of autonomous structural health monitoring (SHM) systems. Moreover, it would permit to collect important traffic data for traffic-monitoring analysis and the development of Vehicle to Infrastructure Communication (V2I) tools, hence contributing to the digitalisation of the transport sector. The sensing mechanism is based on the piezoresistive effect, consisting of a change in the electrical response of the road material when subjected to stress/strain or damage. This paper aims to investigate the piezoresistive behavior of conductive asphalt mixtures with electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) for self-sensing application. The results showed that asphalt mixtures with EAFS as fine aggregate and 7Â wt% of GNPs exhibited excellent self-sensing properties for both traffic monitoring and SHM systems.
19.	Hollberg, Alexander, 1985, et al. (author) Evaluation of BIM-based LCA results for building design 2020 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 109 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Digital tools based on Building Information Modelling (BIM) provide the potential to facilitate environmental performance assessments of buildings. Various tools that use a BIM model for automatic quantity take-off as basis for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) have been developed recently. This paper describes the first application of such a BIM-LCA tool to evaluate the embodied global warming potential (GWP) throughout the whole design process of a real building. 34 states of the BIM model are analysed weekly. The results show that the embodied GWP during the design phase is twice as high as for the final building. These changes can be mainly attributed to the designers' approach of using placeholder materials that are refined later, besides other reasons. As such, the embodied GWP is highly overestimated and a BIM-based environmental assessment during the design process could be misleading and counterproductive. Finally, three alternatives to the established automatic quantity take-off are discussed for future developments.
20.	Jansson, Gustav, et al. (author) Design management using knowledge innovation and visual planning. 2016 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 72:3, s. 330-337 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract An open platform used for industrialised house-building imposes restrictions on the flexibility of the product offering when developing design standardisation. How design process standardisation incorporates variations in products has not been widely studied. The aim of this research is to explain how design breakdown enables Lean Product Development Flow (LPDF) and look-ahead planning in an industrialised house-building context where an open platform is used. A case study was conducted of how one of the leading industrialised house-building companies in Sweden introduced the LPDF tool Knowledge Innovation/Visual Planning (KI-VP) into their design process. The implementation of KI-VP led to an increased cross-functional understanding of relationships between activities, which are an important factor in achieving flexibility and a synchronised workflow. By using design standardisation, look-ahead planning was implemented and used in the management of design flow. Standardisation through design breakdown provides a basis for knowledge innovation that enables improvement of the open platform using a bottom-up approach and increases the production flow.
21.	Jensen, Patrik, et al. (author) Configuration through the parameterization of building components 2012 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 23, s. 1-8 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Many construction companies have developed building systems, based on prefabrication strategies, to enhance productivity. Current practice coupled with the difficulties of introducing these systems early in the design process often leads to ad hoc solutions and problems downstream along the value chain. In 2008 a multi-storey timber building system based on modularization principles was developed. The customization process used in this system is illustrated herein using a configurable timber floor slab module. The downstream flow of design information and upstream flow of constraints on, and rules for, the building system are described from three product viewpoints: the customer view, the engineering view and the production view. Using a manufacturing CAD tool, design automation is implemented in the engineering view and connected to an architectural CAD tool. The demonstration software shows that manufacturing CAD tools can be used to create design automation alternatives for modularized building systems within the construction industry.
22.	Johansson, Mikael, 1975, et al. (author) Real-time visualization of building information models (BIM) 2015 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 54:June 2015, s. 69-82 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract This paper highlights and addresses the complexity and challenges involved in visualizing large and detailed Building Information Models (BIM) in real-time. The contribution of the paper is twofold: (a) an in-depth analysis of four commonly used BIM viewers in terms of real-time rendering performance and (b) the development and validation of a prototype BIM viewer specifically designed to allow real-time visualization of large and complex building models. Regarding existing BIM viewers our results show that they all share limitations in their ability to handle large BIMs taken from real-world projects interactively. However, for the same test models our prototype BIM viewer is able to provide smooth real-time performance without sacrificing visual accuracy. By taking advantage of an efficient visibility determination algorithm, our prototype viewer restricts rendering efforts to visible objects only, with a significant performance increase compared to existing BIM viewers as a result.
23.	Johansson, Mikael, 1975, et al. (author) Real-world applications of BIM and immersive VR in construction 2024 In: Automation in Construction. - 0926-5805. ; 158 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The integration of immersive Virtual Reality (VR) and Building Information Modeling (BIM) has many applications within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industries. In this context VR is often highlighted for its ability to convey scale and details, especially when compared to non-immersive visualizations. However, despite being an active area of research, there is currently a lack of real-world studies exploring immersive VR in a construction-oriented context. In addition, there are still technical challenges and barriers for an efficient integration, such as rendering performance and interoperability issues. This paper addresses these issues by investigating the use of immersive, single- and multi-user VR within the openBIM ecosystem. The contribution is two-fold: (a) an in-depth presentation of algorithms and technical details of a multi-user VR application for immersive visualization of large and complex BIMs and (b) an evaluation of this VR system on several real-world construction projects. In all cases the VR visualization has been directly realized from the design teams IFC-models and the multi-user sessions has been performed both co-located as well as fully remote. The results show that multi-user VR improves communication, understanding, and collaboration, and by letting staff with knowledge and experience from construction production review the project in VR, design errors and constructability issues can be identified and resolved before reaching the actual production stage. Moreover, the use of VR is helpful regarding sequencing and planning, and to identify alternative design solutions.
24.	Jongeling, Rogier, et al. (author) A method for planning of work-flow by combined use of location-based scheduling and 4D CAD 2007 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 16:2, s. 189-198 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract There is a great potential to improve the flow of resources through locations on construction sites, termed work-flow. Current activity-based scheduling techniques do not provide adequate support for the planning of work-flow due to practical and methodological reasons. Location-based scheduling techniques provide a promising alternative to activity-based scheduling techniques for planning of work-flow. However, neither location-based nor activity-based scheduling techniques provide users with insight in the spatial configuration of scheduled construction operations. A technique that can provide this insight is 4D CAD in which 3D CAD models are combined with data from construction schedules. This article presents a process method for the planning of work-flow by combined use of location-based scheduling and 4D CAD. We suggest that a location-based approach to 4D CAD can improve the usability of the 4D CAD models for work-flow analyses. In addition, the article suggests that 4D CAD can enhance the value of location-based schedules.
25.	Jongeling, Rogier, et al. (author) Quantitative analysis of workflow, temporary structure usage, and productivity using 4D models 2008 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 17:6, s. 780-791 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract This paper presents time-space analyses of construction operations supported by quantitative information extracted from 4D CAD models. The application of 4D models is a promising approach to help introduce construction innovations and to evaluate construction alternatives. Current analyses of 4D models are mainly visual and provide project stakeholders with a clear, but limited, insight of construction planning information. This practice does not take advantage of the quantitative data contained in 4D models. We use two 4D models of an industry test case to illustrate how to analyze, compare, and present 4D content quantitatively (i.e., workspace areas, work locations, and distances between concurrent activities). This paper shows how different types of 4D content can be extracted from 4D models to support 4D-content-based analyses and novel presentation of construction planning information. We suggest further research aimed at formalizing the contents in 4D models to enable comparative quantitative analyses of construction planning alternatives. Formalized 4D content can enable the development of reasoning mechanisms that automate 4D-model-based analyses and provide the data content for presentations of construction planning information.
26.	Jung, Taerang, et al. (author) Boom energy recuperation system and control strategy for hydraulic hybrid excavators 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : ELSEVIER. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 135 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract In this paper, a boom potential energy recovery hydraulic system for an excavator and its controller is proposed and evaluated. It is a trend in the construction machinery sector to adopt hybrid systems to recuperate potential energy from heavy loads. Many studies have been conducted to improve the efficiency of boom potential energy recovery. However, most of the proposed solutions have limitations regarding commercialization due to low controllability and high cost. The proposed system in this paper uses only electronically controlled hydraulic components. Different operation modes are defined to increase performance, efficiency or a balance between the two. The system is mathematically analysed to derive a control strategy that is able to increase machine efficiency and control performance while maintaining its controllability. The system and control strategy are applied to a prototype machine, a Volvo 30-ton class excavator, to verify the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Experimental results demonstrate that the working cycle becomes around 3% faster, and the fuel consumption becomes around 9% lower than the operation in non-hybrid mode.
27.	Kebede, Rahel Zeleke, et al. (author) Integration of manufacturers' product data in BIM platforms using semantic web technologies 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 144 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract As building information modeling (BIM) gains popularity in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry, manufacturers are required to distribute their product specifications in digital product models. Currently, manufacturers mainly employ proprietary formats, such as BIM objects supplemented by PDF documents to represent their product data descriptions. However, these formats do not support flexible automated product search and data integration. This paperdescribes the use of Semantic Web technologies in combination with BIM-based visual programming language (VPL) to automatically integrate product data from external databases. To facilitate data integration, we introduced a method to semantically represent product data linked with the CEN/TS 17623:2021 standard using ontologies in web ontology language (OWL). The study has focused on the use case of a manufacturer of lighting products. Results show that building designers are able to execute a more efficient product search that satisfies their query requirements and returns suitable products of their choice from the manufacturer's database based on their requests. This approach eliminates the time-consuming and error-prone process of manually entering product data into BIM software.
28.	Kifokeris, Dimosthenis, 1988, et al. (author) Risk source-based constructability appraisal using supervised machine learning 2019 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 104, s. 341-359 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Appraising a technical project's constructability is pivotal in its objectives' achievement, performance improvement, and collaborative lifecycle management. However, it has never been computationally integrated with risk analysis. This paper presents the construction, implementation and validation of a novel methodological and computational framework tackling such an integration for the first time, by treating it as a classification problem. Real projects' risk- and constructability class-related data was collected, and the risk elements' values were normalized and assigned to a general risk source checklist. Then, regularized stochastic gradient descent non-negative matrix factorization dealt with missing values and factorized the data into vectors. The latter were processed with sequential minimal optimization – employed to solve the soft-margin support vector machines for supervised machine learning classification – which was trained and validated through n-fold cross-validation. The result was a classification equation that predicts with high accuracy a project's constructability class, given its identified and assessed risk sources.
29.	Linderoth, Henrik (author) Understanding adoption and use of BIM as the creation of actor networks 2010 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 19:1, s. 66-72 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract There has been a considerable time lag between the emergence of visionary expectations of BIM's (Building Information Models) transformative potential in the architecture, engineering and construction industry, and the deployment of the technology in the industry's daily practice. By viewing adoption and use of BIM as the inter-linkage of actors forming a building and construction project, the aim of the paper is to uncover mechanisms facilitating and constraining the creation of actor networks in which BIM is adopted and used. The aim is pursued by a case study in a major Swedish construction company. It is concluded that the possibility of incremental implementation of BIM applications is well aligned with the character of the industrial context. But the context can also constrain the use of applications requiring more long term thinking. However, because of the disruptive nature of building and construction projects, the challenge is to maintain and re-establish the network in which BIM is used in consecutive projects. When clients and regulating bodies recognize benefits from BIM usage, the main obstacle created by these characteristics of the industry will diminish
30.	Liu, Fei, et al. (author) Precision study on augmented reality-based visual guidance for facility management tasks 2018 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 90, s. 79-90 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract One unique capability of augmented reality (AR) is to visualize hidden objects as a virtual overlay on real occluding objects. This “X-ray vision” visualization metaphor has proved to be invaluable for operation and maintenance tasks such as locating utilities behind a wall. Locating virtual occluded objects requires users to estimate the closest projected positions of the virtual objects upon their real occluders, which is generally under the influence of a parallax effect. In this paper we studied the task of locating virtual pipes behind a real wall with “X-ray vision” and the goal is to establish relationships between task performance and spatial factors causing parallax through different forms of visual augmentation. We introduced and validated a laser-based target designation method which is generally useful for AR-based interaction with augmented objects beyond arm's reach. The main findings include that people can mentally compensate for the parallax error when extrapolating positions of virtual objects on the real surface given traditional 3D depth cues for spatial understanding. This capability is, however, unreliable especially in the presence of the increasing viewing offset between the users and the virtual objects as well as the increasing distance between the virtual objects and their occluders. Experiment results also show that positioning performance is greatly increased and unaffected by those factors if the AR support provides visual guides indicating the closest projected positions of virtual objects on the surfaces of their real occluders.
31.	Llatas, C., et al. (author) BIM-based LCSA application in early design stages using IFC 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 138 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA) is an integrated method that combines environmental, economic, and social assessments. Its methodological development remains under discussion, mainly regarding the building design. This paper aims to provide a systematic, interoperable, and open-source approach towards implementing LCSA in Building Information Modelling (BIM) in five steps. A harmonized data structure that enriches BIM objects is proposed. Automation in the principal evaluation step is provided by integrating new parameters into the current Industry Foundation Classes (IFC4). A Dynamo script verifies its utility in a case study in Spain using real-time calculations and visualizations. Two alternative structural systems are assessed, and identification is made of the lowest CO2 emitter, the lowest cost, and the most beneficial system for local employment. The approach can be employed to evaluate other indicators and building systems in other countries. Challenges and limitations in the standardization and harmonization of the three dimensions are identified.
32.	Lu, Weizhuo, et al. (author) Building information modeling and discrete event simulation: towards an integrated framework 2014 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 44, s. 73-83 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The development of a realistic Discrete Event Simulation (DES) model needs the complete specification of the interdependencies between activities and resources. Also, the maintenance of an existing DES model is challenging especially when changes in the logical relationships between activities, resource allocation and design need to be considered. The process of development and maintenance is time-consuming, error-prone and it restricts the application of DES within the construction industry. In this research, a Building Information Modeling (BIM) and DES framework is proposed to enable the implementation and integration of DES in the planning and follow-up of construction activities. The framework consists of: (1) A building information modeling process that exports material quantity take-offs, schedules and required resources to a relational database and (2) An intelligent simulation engine that automatically reads information from the database at the start of each simulation run. This implies that changes in the building information modeling process, such as design modification, different resource allocations and alternative construction methods can be explored without manually checking and re-formalizing the simulation model. A preliminary prototype has been developed using the proposed BIM-DES framework. The initial results show that the proposed BIM-DES framework reinforces both elements by providing valuable additional information. BIM provides the product and process information to DES, facilitating the building and maintenance of the DES model; the DES model evaluates the construction performances and provides valuable feedback to the BIM process for decision support.
33.	Masood, Jawad, 1982-, et al. (author) Pseudo-elastic wire application in robotized cutting systems 2013 In: Automation in Construction. - Amsterdam : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 31:May, s. 103-113 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Analytical and simulation results with pseudo-elastic core wire in stone cutting applications are discussed. System specifications and requirements are defined for the operation of the wire at tensions, speed and general conditions similar to the ones optimized for cutting with standard rope wires with beads of the same diameter. Multi-body dynamic simulation parameters are derived from scale homogenization approach. They are used to run multi-body simulation analysis according to the cutting force requirements. Different simulation schemes and approaches are invented to model the effective cutting forces and system dynamic behavior. Constitutive non-linear pseudo-elastic material model is exploited to be utilized in finite element analysis. The results obtained are further used in finite element analysis in order to study the variation of forces among different sections of pseudo-elastic wire. Finally finite element transient analysis is performed to have an insight into the behavior of the wire under time variant loads. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
34.	Momeni, Mahdi, et al. (author) Automated fabrication of reinforcement cages using a robotized production cell 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier B.V.. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 133 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Unlike what is common in the traditional manufacturing industry, the structures in the construction industry are often one of a kind. The goal of this work is to provide a real-world compatible fully automated gantry-robot system for flexible serial production of custom-made reinforcement cages. This can lead to increased efficiency, productivity, and sustainability, not to mention the positive impact on labour safety as well as decreased environmental impact. In this paper, we present a solution utilizing three industrial robots mounted on a gantry structure for automatic generation of robot paths for moving, placing, and tying rebars. Moreover, we present how a 3D BIM-model of a rebar cage, along with installation instructions such as the order in which the bars should be installed, are transferred into CoppeliaSim. This proof-of-concept implementation is an important milestone indicating the feasibility of our proposed robotic solution for the automated fabrication of one-of-a-kind reinforcement cages.
35.	Mousavi, Arash, et al. (author) Energy Efficient Agent Function Block : A semantic agent approach to IEC 61499 function blocks in energy efficient building automation systems 2015 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 54, s. 127-142 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Automation plays a vital role in improving energy efficiency in buildings. Building Automation Systems (BASs) are drastically growing in size and complexity. The traditional centralized automation systems cannot suitably address this growth due to insufficient flexibility and scalability. IEC 61499 Function Block (FB) is a promising software paradigm for industrial automation that addresses these complexities because of its object-oriented, event-driven and distributed paradigm. However, efficient energy management in a heterogeneous system comprising of many energy consuming components, functioning in highly dynamic and partially predictable environments, requires a higher level of intelligence that FB currently does not possess. To cope with this issue, a software entity called 2eA-FB has been introduced by combining FB, intelligent software agent and semantic web technologies. Being capable of field-level control, communication and reasoning over semantically enriched domain knowledge, 2eA-FB bridges the gap between management and automation layers of BAS and controls the energy consumption for individual energy consuming components, separately and intelligently. This in turn results in more efficient overall energy consumption for the whole system
36.	Popovic, Djordje, 1985-, et al. (author) Configuration of flexible volumetric elements using product platforms : Information modeling method and a case study 2021 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 126 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Industrialized house building companies producing single-family housing must efficiently respond to customer needs and contingent requirements during product specification. These are the incentives for the adoption of high-level mass customization, addressed in this research, by exploring the information modeling of product platform use. Knowledge contributions are made through a proposed information modeling method and its application in a case study. The proposed method is a synthesis between the design platform and product-oriented information delivery manual. The scope of the information delivery manual is expanded from building systems to product platforms. Moreover, the design process is considered during both product predefinition and product specification. The theoretical construct of design modules is used to describe flexible volumetric elements and thereby apply the proposed information modeling method in a case study. The research demonstrates how design modules can be modeled using design assets throughout the design process of single-family industrialized house building.
37.	Pourghazian, Hanif, et al. (author) The impact of industrialized construction on the production cost of dwellings 2008 In: Automation in Construction. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. Journal article (other academic/artistic)
38.	Rempling, Rasmus, 1976, et al. (author) Automatic structural design by a set-based parametric design method 2019 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 108:December Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Modern structural design faces new challenges, such as addressing the needs of several stakeholders and satisfying the criteria for achieving sustainability. The traditional design process does not allow resolution of these challenges. The purpose of this project was to investigate the applicability of a Set-Based Parametric Design method to the structural design process of bridges. The focus was on the early design stage, in which the design team evaluates design alternatives against a chosen set of criteria. The main challenge in this stage of design is that the process should be cost- and time-effective while allowing comparison of the different alternatives and their evaluation in terms of the different design criteria. Certainly, structural design is often performed by a discussion between the different stakeholders involved in this process, i.e. the client, contractor, and engineering team. An evaluation of alternatives against criteria requires a more detailed design, which is contradictory to the early design stage when information is scarce. The selected approach was to develop a script that can generate information for decision-making, automate the structural design process, perform common routine design tasks, and control the numerical analysis. The method combined Set-Based Design, Parametric Design, Finite Element Analysis and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. Three existing bridges were selected to demonstrate the applicability of the developed method. The method was successfully applied and it was observed that it resulted in bridges that were more efficient in terms of material costs and carbon dioxide equivalent emissions compared with existing bridges. By delaying the decisions and developing the sets of alternatives, various alternatives can be assessed and evaluated, in the design stage, against different sustainability criteria.
39.	Rezaie, Amir, et al. (author) Machine-learning for damage assessment of rubble stone masonry piers based on crack patterns 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 140 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Under seismic actions, stone masonry buildings are prone to damage. To assess the severity of damaged masonry buildings and their failure modes, engineers connect these problems to surface crack features, such as the crack width and the extent of cracking. We aim to further these assessments in this study, wherein we propose using simple machine learning models to predict: 1) three ratios encoding the degradation of stiffness, strength, and displacement capacity of damaged rubble stone masonry piers as a function of the observed crack features and the applied axial load and shear span ratio; and 2) the pre-peak vs. post-peak regime, based on the crack features. When predicting the stiffness, force, and drift ratios, the prediction error is significantly reduced when the axial load and shear span ratio are included in the feature vector. Furthermore, when predicting the pre-peak vs. post-peak regime, simple machine learning models such as the k-nearest neighbor and the logistic regression result in remarkable accuracy. The obtained results have significant implications on the automated post-earthquake assessment of masonry buildings using image data. It is shown based on documented laboratory test data, that, by selecting proper crack features and incorporating information about the kinematic and static boundary conditions, even simple machine learning models can predict accurately the damage level caused to a rubble masonry pier. The three crack features used in this study are the maximum crack width, length density, and complexity dimension. The pipeline developed in this paper is general enough and is applicable to other masonry typologies and elements upon new evaluation of crack features and image data.
40.	Samuelson, Olle, et al. (author) A longitudinal study of the adoption of IT technology in the Swedish building sector 2014 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 37, s. 182-190 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The rapid development of IT technology has in the past decades created opportunities for faster and more efficient processes, and new working methods in the building industry. This paper presents the results of a longitudinal survey-based study (the "IT barometer") of IT use in the Swedish building industry, conducted at several intervals over the period 1998-2011. The results show a rapid increase in general IT use, and in the use of sector-specific tools. Improving communication and information sharing is a strong driving force for taking IT into use, for instance technologies such as EDM and EDI, although the adoption of the more complex applications (ie BIM) is slower. Interestingly "demands from employees" has over the years become a very important reason for companies to increase their IT use. Leading areas for planned IT investments include document handling and mobile equipment, with BIM technology rather low on the list.
41.	Sierla, Seppo, et al. (author) A taxonomy of machine learning applications for virtual power plants and home/building energy management systems 2022 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 136 Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract A Virtual power plant is defined as an information and communications technology system with the following primary functionalities: enhancing renewable power generation, aggregating Distributed Energy Resources and monetizing them considering the relevant energy contracts or markets. A virtual power plant also includes secondary functionalities such as forecasting load, market prices and renewable generation, as well as asset management related to the distributed energy ressources. Home energy management systems and building energy management systems have significant overlap with virtual power plants, but these bodies of research are largely separate. Machine learning has recently been applied to realize various functionalities of these systems. This article presents a 3-tier taxonomy of such functionalities. The top tier categories are optimization, forecasting and classification. A scientometric research methodology is used, so that a custom database has been developed to capture metadata from all of the articles that have been included in the taxonomy. Custom algorithms have been developed to generate infographics from the database, to visualize the taxonomy and trends in the research. The paper concludes with a discussion of topics expected to receive a high number of publications in the future, as well as currently unresolved challenges.
42.	Tzanetos, Alexandros, et al. (author) Systematic search and mapping review of the concrete delivery problem (CDP) : Formulations, objectives, and data 2023 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 145 Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract Over the last decades, researchers have studied one of the most complex combinatorial problems, i.e., the Concrete Delivery Problem (CDP), set different formulations of it, considered several objectives, and suggested various approaches. But no work has gathered this information to facilitate the comprehensive study of the CDP and investigate the research paths taken until today. Using a systematic search and mapping review, this paper fills that gap by (a) performing a comprehensive search on the CDP, and (b) mapping out and categorizing the existing literature. Specifically, this paper provides an overview of the various methods of the literature, categorizing the problem formulations based on the literature's different concepts, i.e., Integer Programming (IP), Time-Space Network, and the Job Shop model. The consistency between industry needs and existing constraints was discussed, and insights into the data sets corresponding to real-world cases were provided, identifying the necessary data for practitioners.
43.	Uggla, Gustaf, et al. (author) Geographic capabilities and limitations of Industry Foundation Classes 2018 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 96, s. 554-566 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Infrastructure design is conducted in a 3D Cartesian coordinate system with the assumption that the Earth is flat and that the scale is constant over the entire project area. Map projections are commonly used to georeference the designed geometries before constructing them on the surface of the Earth. The scale in a map projection varies depending on the position in the map plane, which leads to scale distortions between the designed geometries and the geometries staked out for construction. These distortions are exaggerated for large longitudinal projects such as the construction of roads and railroads because the construction site spans a larger area. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is increasing in popularity as a way to manage information within a construction project. Its use is more widespread in the building industry, but it is currently being adopted by the infrastructure industry as well. The open BIM standard IFC (Industry Foundation Classes) has recently developed support for alignment geometries, and full support for disciplines such as road and railroad construction is underway. This study tests whether the current IFC standard can facilitate georeferencing with sufficiently low distortion for the construction of infrastructure. This is done by performing georeferencing using three different methods, all using the information provided in the IFC schema, and by calculating the scale distortions caused by the different methods. It is concluded that the geographic capabilities of the IFC schema could be improved by adding a separate scale factor for the horizontal plane and support for object-specific map projections.
44.	Uggla, Gustaf, et al. (author) Towards synthesized training data for semantic segmentation of mobile laser scanning point clouds : Generating level crossings from real and synthetic point cloud samples 2021 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 130 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract This paper presents a method for synthesizing mobile laser scanning point clouds of railroad level crossings that can be used to train neural networks for point cloud segmentation. The method arranges point cloud samples representing individual objects into new scenes using a set of simple placement rules. The point cloud samples can be cropped from real point clouds, created from 3D mesh models, or procedurally generated using mathematical functions. The scenes can consist of one or more types of samples, making it possible to combine real and synthetic data. The findings show that a network trained on scenes generated from real point cloud samples resulted in a better overall F1-score compared to a network that was trained using real scenes. Also, the performance of a network trained on a very small amount of real scenes can be improved by adding fully synthetic scenes to the training data.
45.	Wan, Hongyu, et al. (author) Trace analysis using Wi-Fi probe positioning and virtual reality for commercial building complex design 2023 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 153 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The effective management of human flow is critical to the success of complex projects in urban centers, such as shopping malls. However, conventional methods of flow organization, which rely on observation and empirical knowledge, face challenges in fully comprehending the intricate environment. This study proposes an analytical approach to manage human flow in shopping malls in urban centers. A Wi-Fi probe positioning system recorded real-time human flow to assess current movement patterns, while virtual reality (VR) identified issues and optimized the space layout. The Maoye shopping mall in Nanjing experienced a decline in human flow, prompting the need for a new design. The study demonstrates that the Wi-Fi probe positioning system supports the setting of entrances and main corridors during the design phase, while VR tracing evaluates space layout and aids optimization. The study contributes to data-informed design by integrating analytical approaches into the conventional design process.
46.	Westerdahl, Björn, et al. (author) Users' evaluation of a virtual reality architectural model compared with the experience of the completed building 2006 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805. ; 15:2, s. 150-165 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract It is important that the properties of a Virtual Reality (VR) model support its purpose in the specific context in which it is used. This study investigated how employees of a company experienced a VR model of their yet-to-be-built office building. We also compared the VR experience with the employees' experience of the completed building. The results showed that the employees felt that the VR model was a useful aid in the decision-making process concerning their future workplace. In addition, The Semantic Environment Description Scale was used to compare the experience of the VR model with the experience of the real building. The results suggest that the VR model gave a fairly accurate representation of the real building.
47.	Zhang, Fan, et al. (author) Construction site accident analysis using text mining and natural language processing techniques 2019 In: Automation in Construction. - : Elsevier BV. - 0926-5805 .- 1872-7891. ; 99, s. 238-248 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Workplace safety is a major concern in many countries. Among various industries, construction sector is identified as the most hazardous work place. Construction accidents not only cause human sufferings but also result in huge financial loss. To prevent reoccurrence of similar accidents in the future and make scientific risk control plans, analysis of accidents is essential. In construction industry, fatality and catastrophe investigation summary reports are available for the past accidents. In this study, text mining and natural language process (NLP) techniques are applied to analyze the construction accident reports. To be more specific, five baseline models, support vector machine (SVM), linear regression (LR), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), decision tree (DT), Naive Bayes (NB) and an ensemble model are proposed to classify the causes of the accidents. Besides, Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) algorithm is utilized to optimize weight of each classifier involved in the ensemble model. Experiment results show that the optimized ensemble model outperforms rest models considered in this study in terms of average weighted F1 score. The result also shows that the proposed approach is more robust to cases of low support. Moreover, an unsupervised chunking approach is proposed to extract common objects which cause the accidents based on grammar rules identified in the reports. As harmful objects are one of the major factors leading to construction accidents, identifying such objects is extremely helpful to mitigate potential risks. Certain limitations of the proposed methods are discussed and suggestions and future improvements are provided.

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