| 1. |
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| 2. |
- Ahren-Moonga, Jennie, et al.
(author)
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Personality traits and self-injurious behaviour in patients with eating disorders
- 2008
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In: European eating disorders review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 16:4, s. 268-275
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The interest in different aspects of personality and the neuropsychological basis for behaviour in eating disorder patients has increased over the last decade. The present study aims at exploring personality traits, self-injurious behaviour (SIB) and suicide attempts in a group of severely ill eating disorder patients. Patients with eating disorders (N = 38) and age-matched controls (N = 67) were examined concerning self-reported personality traits by means of the Karolinska scales of personality (KSP). Psychosocial history and SIB was collected from medical records. Depression was rated by means of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Results indicated significantly higher anxiety-related and detachment traits in both anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) patients and higher hostility in BN patients than controls. No specific personality traits could be defined as typical for self-injurious or suicidal behaviour. The AN group was lower than the BN group on scales measuring impulsivity, guilt and anxiety. Furthermore, presence of SIB and suicide attempts was more frequent among the BN patients.
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| 3. |
- Ahrén-Moonga, Jennie, et al.
(author)
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Personality traits and self-injury behaviour in patients with eating disorders
- 2008
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In: European eating disorders review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 16:4, s. 268-275
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The interest in different aspects of personality and the neuropsychological basis for behaviour in eating disorder patients has increased over the last decade. The present study aims at exploring personality traits, self-injurious behaviour (SIB) and suicide attempts in a group of severely ill eating disorder patients. Patients with eating disorders (N = 38) and age-matched controls (N = 67) were examined concerning self-reported personality traits by means of the Karolinska scales of personality (KSP). Psychosocial history and SIB was collected from medical records. Depression was rated by means of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Results indicated significantly higher anxiety-related and detachment traits in both anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) patients and higher hostility in BN patients than controls. No specific personality traits could be defined as typical for self-injurious or suicidal behaviour. The AN group was lower than the BN group on scales measuring impulsivity, guilt and anxiety. Furthermore, presence of SIB and suicide attempts was more frequent among the BN patients.
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| 11. |
- Birgegård, Andreas, et al.
(author)
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Quality assurance of specialised treatment of eating disorders using large-scale Internet-based collection systems : methods, results and lessons learned from designing the Stepwise database.
- 2010
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In: European eating disorders review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 18:4, s. 251-9
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Computer-based quality assurance of specialist eating disorder (ED) care is a possible way of meeting demands for evaluating the real-life effectiveness of treatment, in a large-scale, cost-effective and highly structured way. The Internet-based Stepwise system combines clinical utility for patients and practitioners, and provides research-quality naturalistic data. Stepwise was designed to capture relevant variables concerning EDs and general psychiatric status, and the database can be used for both clinical and research purposes. The system comprises semi-structured diagnostic interviews, clinical ratings and self-ratings, automated follow-up schedules, as well as administrative functions to facilitate registration compliance. As of June 2009, the system is in use at 20 treatment units and comprises 2776 patients. Diagnostic distribution (including subcategories of eating disorder not otherwise specified) and clinical characteristics are presented, as well as data on registration compliance. Obstacles and keys to successful implementation of the Stepwise system are discussed, including possible gains and on-going challenges inherent in large-scale, Internet-based quality assurance.
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| 12. |
- Björk, Tabita, et al.
(author)
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The impact of different outcome measures on estimates of remission in a 3-year follow-up of eating disorders
- 2011
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In: European eating disorders review. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 19:1, s. 2-11
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: To examine the impact of using different outcome measures on estimates of remission rates in eating disorders (ED).Method: Adult ED patients (n = 334) included in a naturalistic, longitudinal project were assessed 3 years after intake. Remission was operationally defined using six different measures of outcome. Pairwise analyses of agreement between outcome measures were also calculated.Results: Remission rates for the entire group varied considerably from 24.3 to 77.8% depending on how remission was defined and who made the assessment (experts or patients). Outcome measures performed differently depending on diagnosis, and agreement between measures varied from none to very good.Conclusion: The impact of different definitions of outcome on remission estimates is considerable. There is a need to validate different estimates of remission by examining them in relation to multiple domains of outcome over time and by critically examining their relative merits both empirically and clinically.
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| 13. |
- Björk, Tabita, et al.
(author)
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What happened to the ones who dropped out? Outcome in eating disorder patients who complete or prematurely terminate treatment
- 2009
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In: European eating disorders review. - New York : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 17:2, s. 109-119
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- INTRODUCTION: There is a lack of knowledge about the outcome of eating disorder patients who terminate treatment prematurely. The present study followed-up eating disorder patients who had previously dropped out of treatment and examined clinical status 36 months after intake. METHOD: Dropouts (n = 30) were compared with treatment completers (n = 52) on diagnostic status, clinical symptoms, psychosocial adjustment and treatment satisfaction at follow-up. Patterns of change from intake to follow-up within groups, as well as between groups, were explored. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between groups at follow-up, except for more treatment dissatisfaction reported among dropouts. When patterns of change were examined between groups, patients who completed treatment were found to have made significantly greater changes (less eating disorder symptoms, less psychological problems and more positive self-image) compared to dropouts. DISCUSSION: Although no significant differences in outcome were found between dropouts and completers, greater clinical improvement was found among those who completed treatment. The dropouts examined in this study did well despite premature termination of treatment. Clinical and research implications are discussed.
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| 14. |
- Bravender, T., et al.
(author)
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Classification of Eating Disturbance in Children and Adolescents: Proposed Changes for the DSM-V
- 2010
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In: European Eating Disorders Review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 18:2, s. 79-89
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Childhood and adolescence are critical periods of neural development and physical growth. The malnutrition and related medical complications resulting from eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and eating disorder not otherwise specified may have more severe and potentially more protracted consequences during youth than during other age periods. The consensus opinion of an international workgroup of experts on the diagnosis and treatment of child and adolescent eating disorders is that (a) lower and more developmentally sensitive threshold's of symptom seventy (e.g lower frequency of purging behaviours, significant deviations from growth curves as indicators of clinical seventy) be used as diagnostic boundaries for children and adolescents, (b) behavioural indicators of psychological features of eating disorders be considered even in the absence of direct self-report of such symptoms and (C) multiple informants (e.g parents) be used to ascertain symptom profiles. Collectively, these recommendations will permit earlier identification and intervention to prevent the exacerbation of eating disorder symptoms. Copyright (C) 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association
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| 15. |
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| 16. |
- Carrard, I, et al.
(author)
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Evaluation of a guided internet self-treatment programme for bulimia nervosa in several European countries.
- 2010
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In: European eating disorders review : the journal of the Eating Disorders Association. - : Wiley. - 1099-0968.
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this study were to evaluate the use of an online guided self-treatment programme for bulimia nervosa (BN) and to determine predictors of outcome. Data were collected in four European countries where the programme was simultaneously used. METHOD: One hundred and twenty-seven BN or subthreshold BN female patients (mean age of 24.7 years) participated in a 4-month intervention using a CBT based online-guided self-help programme. Contact during the treatment period included weekly e-mails with a coach. ASSESSMENT: Measures included the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 (EDI-2) and the Symptom Check List-Revised (SCL-90R). RESULTS: Severity of eating disorders symptoms and general psychopathology improved significantly. Twenty-three per cent of patients were symptom free at the end of treatment. The dropout rate was 25.2%. A better score of general psychological health was a predictor of a better outcome. CONCLUSIONS: This study encourages further developments and research on innovative therapy approaches, particularly for those disorders such as BN, with difficult therapy and unclear prognosis. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
- Clinton, D
(author)
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Stuffing the Christmas turkey
- 2000
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In: EUROPEAN EATING DISORDERS REVIEW. - 1072-4133. ; 8:1, s. 76-79
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Journal article (other academic/artistic)
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| 21. |
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| 22. |
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| 23. |
- Daugaard Hemmingsen, Simone, et al.
(author)
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Cognitive improvement following weight gain in patients with anorexia nervosa : A systematic review
- 2021
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In: European eating disorders review. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 29:3, s. 402-426
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: Anorexia nervosa (AN) has been associated with cognitive impairment. While re-nutrition is one of the main treatment targets, the effect on cognitive impairments is unclear. The aim of this review was to examine whether cognitive functions improve after weight gain in patients with AN.Method: A systematic review was performed following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses statement guidelines (PROSPERO CRD42019081993). Literature searches were conducted May 20th , 2019 in PubMed, EMBASE, PsychINFO and Cochrane Library. Pairs of reviewers screened reports independently based on titles/abstracts (N = 6539) and full texts (N = 378). Furthermore, they assessed the quality of reports, including whether practice effects were accounted for.Results: Twenty-four longitudinal reports were included featuring 757 patients and 419 healthy controls. Six studies examined children and adolescents. Four out of four studies found processing speed to improve above and beyond what could be assigned to practice effects and three out of four studies found that cognitive flexibility was unaffected after weight gain in children and adolescents. Results from studies of adults were inconclusive.Discussion: The literature on cognitive change in patients with AN following weight gain is sparse. Preliminary conclusions can be made only for children and adolescents, where weight gain appeared to be associated with improved processing speed.
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| 26. |
- Eskild-Jensen, Mia, et al.
(author)
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Comorbid depression as a negative predictor of weight gain during treatment of anorexia nervosa : A systematic scoping review
- 2020
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In: European eating disorders review. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 28:6, s. 605-619
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- BACKGROUND: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious mental illness with high rates of relapse and mortality. Psychiatric comorbidities are common but their impact on the prognosis is largely unknown.OBJECTIVE: The aim was to investigate the influence of psychiatric comorbidity on weight gain during treatment of AN.METHODS: A systematic search was performed in PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE and PsycINFO. Studies evaluating psychiatric comorbidity as a predictor for treatment outcome (weight gain) were included, however, comorbid alcohol/drug addiction was excluded from this review.RESULTS: Four thousand five hundred and twenty six publications were identified from which 15 were included. The majority of the included studies had a prospective open naturalistic study design, a short-term follow-up period, and were based on small populations of primarily adolescent and adult women. Four studies indicate depression, and two obsessiveness as negative prognostic factors, whilst one study indicated moderate depression and yet another, neuroticism, as positive predictors for weight gain.DISCUSSION: The systematic scoping review found a large number of publications whereof only a few directly described the influence of psychiatric comorbidity on weight gain in AN. Overall, studies were heterogeneous in design, purpose and outcome making comparisons difficult. Findings were divergent but depression had a negative influence on weight gain in four studies.
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| 27. |
- Fernández-Aranda, Fernando, et al.
(author)
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COVID Isolation Eating Scale (CIES) : Analysis of the impact of confinement in eating disorders and obesity—A collaborative international study
- 2020
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In: European Eating Disorders Review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 28:6, s. 871-883
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Confinement during the COVID-19 pandemic is expected to have a serious and complex impact on the mental health of patients with an eating disorder (ED) and of patients with obesity. The present manuscript has the following aims: (1) to analyse the psychometric properties of the COVID Isolation Eating Scale (CIES), (2) to explore changes that occurred due to confinement in eating symptomatology; and (3) to explore the general acceptation of the use of telemedicine during confinement. The sample comprised 121 participants (87 ED patients and 34 patients with obesity) recruited from six different centres. Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) tested the rational-theoretical structure of the CIES. Adequate goodness-of-fit was obtained for the confirmatory factor analysis, and Cronbach alpha values ranged from good to excellent. Regarding the effects of confinement, positive and negative impacts of the confinement depends of the eating disorder subtype. Patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and with obesity endorsed a positive response to treatment during confinement, no significant changes were found in bulimia nervosa (BN) patients, whereas Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED) patients endorsed an increase in eating symptomatology and in psychopathology. Furthermore, AN patients expressed the greatest dissatisfaction and accommodation difficulty with remote therapy when compared with the previously provided face-to-face therapy. The present study provides empirical evidence on the psychometric robustness of the CIES tool and shows that a negative confinement impact was associated with ED subtype, whereas OSFED patients showed the highest impairment in eating symptomatology and in psychopathology.
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| 28. |
- Gowers, SG, et al.
(author)
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Treatment aims and philosophy in the treatment of adolescent anorexia nervosa in Europe
- 2002
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In: European Eating Disorders Review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133. ; 10:4, s. 271-280
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This study describes the range of service provision and explores differences in treatment approaches and therapeutic aims, in the 12 countries participating in the European Union collaborative COST B6 Adolescent Project into the treatment of adolescent anorexia nervosa (AN). Following a number of group meetings, two questionnaires were administered, completed and returned by e-mail. The first questionnaire examined features of the services provided, including details of the numbers of patients seen, inpatient admission criteria and aspects of patient management. The second questionnaire contained a list Of 13 therapeutic aims, asking respondents to rank in order the six they considered most important in the first weeks of treatment. There was broad agreement between services concerning the need to offer a full spectrum of services in a range of settings. Nevertheless, there were significant differences in approaches, chiefly concerning the readiness to admit to hospital, the use of (individual or family) day units and the focus on weight restoration as opposed to therapeutic engagement. Copyright (C) 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
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| 29. |
- Gustafsson, Sanna Aila, et al.
(author)
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Personal standards, self-evaluation and perceived benefits of thinness in girls and young women with disturbed eating
- 2008
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In: European eating disorders review. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 16:6, s. 463-471
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Journal article (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The aim of this study was to examine personal standards, self-evaluation and perceived benefits of thinness in Swedish females 14-21 years with disturbed eating (DE) and to compare these to a group with other psychosocial problems and to a symptom free group. Seventy subjects with DE-group, 65 subjects with psychosocial problems and 70 symptom free subjects were compared regarding items selected from four questionnaires. High personal standards expressed in a competitive way were specific for the DE-group. In comparison with the other groups the DE-group also reported significantly more perceived benefits of thinness and they more frequently believed that thinness would make them more popular. The DE-group also reported a more negative self-evaluation, although this was a trait shared with the subjects with other psychosocial problems and consequently not specific for the DE-group. Identifying specific factors that perpetuate DE habits is important in order to improve our understanding and enhance the treatment of eating disorders.
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| 30. |
- Gustafsson, Sanna Aila, 1972-, et al.
(author)
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Risk and protective factors for disturbed eating in adolescent girls : aspects of perfectionism and attitudes to eating and weight
- 2009
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In: European eating disorders review. - Chichester : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 17:5, s. 380-389
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The aim of this study was to longitudinally examine the role of personal standards, self-evaluation, perceived benefits of thinness and attitudes to eating and weight in the development of healthy versus disturbed eating in adolescent girls. In a longitudinal study, girls who participated in two assessments, four to five years apart, were divided into three groups according to the attitudes to eating that they manifested at the second evaluation: those with disturbed eating patterns (DE-group, n = 49), those with intermediate concerns about eating (IE-group, n = 260) and those with healthy eating attitudes (HE-group, n = 120). Variables concerning attitudes to eating and weight and physical self-evaluation emerged as risk factors, whereas personal standards or self-evaluation in general did not. Protective factors were a low BMI, healthy eating attitudes, an accepting attitude towards body size and a positive self-evaluation, particularly with regard to physical and psychological characteristics. The results of this study contribute to the understanding of early risk and protective factors for eating disturbances in girls.
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| 34. |
- Josefin, Westerberg-Jacobson, 1970-, et al.
(author)
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A 5-year longitudinal study of the relationship between the wish to be thinner, lifestyle behaviours and disturbed eating in 9–20-year old girls
- 2010
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In: European eating disorders review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 18:3, s. 207-219
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The aim of this 5-year longitudinal study of 593 girls (9-20-year-old) was to examine whether the internalization of the thinness ideal in terms of “a wish to be thinner” might be related to lifestyle factors and longitudinally increase the risk of disturbed eating over time. Results showed that a wish to be thinner was related to lifestyle factors, eating attitudes and BMI longitudinally. Girls who wished to be thinner dieted more often, thought that they would be more popular if they were thinner, skipped meals, were eating breakfast more often alone and had a higher BMI compared to the girls without such a wish. Girls who wished to be thinner were 4 times more likely to develop disturbed eating attitudes over a 5-year period. These findings point to the importance of helping adolescents to establish regular eating habits, to avoid unhealthy dieting practices and to prevent sedentary behaviours that might lead to overweight and or obesity in early childhood.
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| 37. |
- Laberg, Stine, et al.
(author)
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Autobiographical memories in patients treated for bulimia nervosa
- 2004
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In: European eating disorders review. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 12, s. 34-41
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: Previous research has shown that individuals suffering from depression and other emotional disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and delusional disorder have difficulties being specific in autobiographical memory. The aim of this study was to investigate autobiographical memories in patients treated for bulimia nervosa. Method: A sample of 18 women recently treated for bulimia nervosa were tested using the Autobiographical Memory Test. Results: Results showed that bulimic patients had difficulty retrieving specific memories, and retrieved an excess of categoric memories. Bulimic patients also had longer response latencies to both positive and negative cue words than a control group of 18 matched women without any history of eating disorder. There was little relation between severity of depression (Beck Depression Inventory) and specificity in autobiographical memory. Discussion: Findings suggest that persistent memory biases could be worth considering in the treatment of bulimic patients.
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| 38. |
- Lech, Börje, et al.
(author)
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Affect consciousness and eating disorders. Short term stability and subgroup characteristics
- 2012
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In: European eating disorders review. - : John Wiley and Sons. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 20:1, s. e50-e55
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The aim of the study was to analyse differences in observer rated affect consciousness (AC) between subgroups of patients diagnosed with eating disorders (N=44; 30 with anorexia nervosa and 14 with bulimia nervosa), and a non-clinical group (N=40). Another aim was to study the short-term stability of AC over 1011 weeks of treatment and its relation to self-reported eating pathology and general psychopathology. A moderate short-term stability of AC was found but the levels were not correlated with eating pathology or psychopathology. No differences between the two diagnostic categories were found, but the eating disorder group as whole had significantly lower AC compared with a non-eating disorder reference group. AC seems to be a moderately stable ability that differentiates patients diagnosed with eating disorders from a non-clinical population. However, AC is not related to symptoms of eating disorder or general psychiatric symptoms in this group of patients.
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| 39. |
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| 40. |
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| 41. |
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| 42. |
- Nilsson, Karin, et al.
(author)
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A longitudinal study of perfectionism in adolescent onset anorexia nervosa-restricting type
- 2008
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In: European eating disorders review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 16:5, s. 386-394
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This longitudinal study analyses self-reported perfectionism, eating disorders and psychiatric symptoms during recovery from anorexia nervosa (AN). With a recovered design, a group of 68 previous patients with AN was studied in two follow-up studies, 8 and 16 years after 1st admission to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (CAP). Levels of perfectionism stayed the same while eating disorder symptoms and psychiatric symptoms decreased during recovery. Levels of perfectionism were inversely related to duration of remission so that individuals that had short illness duration had lower levels of perfectionism at both follow-ups. Patients with initial high levels of perfectionism may be at risk for a long illness duration which we recommend clinicians to acknowledge.
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| 43. |
- Nilsson, Karin, et al.
(author)
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Family Climate And Recovery In Adolescent Onset Eating Disorders : a prospective study
- 2012
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In: European eating disorders review. - Hoboken, USA : Wiley-Blackwell. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 20:1, s. e96-e102
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: This prospective study investigated the self-assessed family climate of adolescent patients and their parents during treatment of and recovery from eating disorders.Method: One hundred two girls aged 13-17 years with eating disorders, answered the self-report Family Climate Scale (FCS) and Eating Disorders Inventory for Children at initial assessment and after 18 and 36 months. The FCS was also answered by their parents at the same time points.Results: Self-assessed family climate and eating disorder symptoms were similar for recovered (R) and nonrecovered (NR) adolescents at initial assessment and at 18 months. At 36 months, FCS Closeness was higher for R, and FCS Distance was lower for R compared with NR. Parents of R adolescents had higher scores on FCS Closeness and lower scores on FCS Chaos compared with parents of NR adolescents at the 36-month follow-up.Conclusion: Self-reported family climate was associated with recovery. Changes in eating disorder symptoms preceded changes in family climate. Copyright (C) 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
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| 44. |
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| 45. |
- Nyman-Carlsson, Erika, 1982-, et al.
(author)
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Predictors of outcome among young adult patients with anorexia nervosa in a randomised controlled trial
- 2019
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In: European eating disorders review. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 1072-4133 .- 1099-0968. ; 27:1, s. 76-85
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- OBJECTIVE: The prognosis in cases of anorexia nervosa (AN) is unsatisfactory, and it is therefore important to examine pretreatment predictors of outcome.METHODS: Female AN patients (N = 74) included in a randomised controlled trial receiving individual cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) or family-based treatment (FBT) were included. Predictors of the outcome were explored using pretreatment eating disorder psychopathology.RESULTS: In the CBT group, lower levels of emotional dysregulation and greater deficits in identifying and coping with inner states were predictors of weight increase, explaining 37.7% of the variance. In the FBT group, lower interoceptive deficits predicted an increase in weight (explaining 17.7% of the variance), whereas bulimic behaviour (32.4%) and problems with emotional regulation (23.3%) were predictors of increased diagnostic symptoms.CONCLUSIONS: Bulimic symptoms and the ability to identify and cope with emotional states appear to be important aspects that should be addressed in the treatment of young adult patients with AN.
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| 46. |
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| 47. |
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| 48. |
- Peters, T., et al.
(author)
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The association of serum leptin levels with food addiction is moderated by weight status in adolescent psychiatric inpatients
- 2018
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In: European Eating Disorders Review. - : Wiley. - 1072-4133. ; 26:6, s. 618-628
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Leptin is essential for the control of energy homeostasis and eating behaviour. We investigated potential associations between serum leptin levels and food addiction in adolescent psychiatric inpatients (n = 228). The most frequent psychiatric diagnoses were mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders. More than three quarters of the study group suffered from more than one psychiatric disorder. Food addiction was assessed with the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Leptin was determined in serum. Analyses were conducted for the whole body weight range and for distinct weight categories to evaluate a potential impact of known nonlinearity between leptin levels and satiety due to leptin resistance in obese. A weak negative association between food addiction and leptin in normal weight patients (ss = -0.11, p = .022) was detected. In contrast, food addiction was associated with a significantly higher serum leptin (ss = 0.16. p = .038) in overweight patients. Food addiction in normal weight patients might be associated with restrained eating, previously shown to involve reduced leptin levels. The small positive association of food addiction with higher serum leptin in overweight patients might reflect leptin resistance and overeating.
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