| 1. |
- Brandao, Miguel, et al.
(author)
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RED, PEF, and EPD: Conflicting rules for determining the carbon footprint of biofuels give unclear signals to fuel producers and customers
- 2022
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In: Frontiers in Climate. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 2624-9553. ; 4
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Biofuel producers and other commodity suppliers are increasingly affected by conflicting rules for life cycle assessment (LCA). They may get multiple requests for LCAs to be used in various contexts, which require the application of different methodological approaches that vary in scope, system boundaries, data demand, and more. This results in increased cost and competence requirements for producers, as well as confusion among other actors including their customers. Differences in methodologies might also lead to various outcomes, conclusions and conflicting guidance regarding which fuels to prioritize or develop. We have analyzed the actual differences when applying three different frameworks: the EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED), the EU framework for Product Environmental Footprints (PEF), and the framework of Environmental Product Declarations (EPD), which have different modeling requirements. We analyzed the methods from a conceptual point of view and also applied the methods to estimate the carbon footprint on a wide range of biofuel production pathways: (i) ethanol from corn, (ii) fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) from rapeseed oil, (iii) biogas from food waste, (iv) hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) from rapeseed oil, and (v) HVO from used cooking oil. Results obtained for a specific fuel could differ substantially depending on the framework applied and the assumptions and interpretations made when applying the different frameworks. Particularly, the results are very sensitive to the modeling of waste management when biofuel is produced from waste. Our results indicate a much higher climate impact for, e.g., biogas and HVO produced from used cooking oil when assessed with the PEF framework compared to the other frameworks. This is because PEF assigns at least part of the production of primary materials and energy to the use of recycled material and recovered energy. Developing Category Rules for biofuels for PEF and EPD ought to help clarifying remaining ambiguities.
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| 2. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, et al.
(author)
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Attributional and consequential LCA in the ILCD handbook
- 2016
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In: The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. - : Springer. - 0948-3349 .- 1614-7502. ; 21:3, s. 293-296
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Journal article (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This discussion article aims to highlight two problematic aspects in the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: its guidance to the choice between attributional and consequential modeling and to the choice between average and marginal data as input to the life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis. We analyze the ILCD guidance by comparing different statements in the handbook with each other and with previous research in this area. We find that the ILCD handbook is internally inconsistent when it comes to recommendations on how to choose between attributional and consequential modeling. We also find that the handbook is inconsistent with much of previous research in this matter, and also in the recommendations on how to choose between average and marginal data in the LCI. Because of the inconsistencies in the ILCD handbook, we recommend that the handbook be revised.
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| 3. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, et al.
(author)
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Avfallsprevention och giftfri miljö
- 2009
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Avfallsprevention genom ökad materialeffektivitet ger ofta miljöfördelar, t ex i form av minskade utsläpp av växthusgaser, eftersom det bidrar till att hålla nere energiintensiv materialproduktion. Syftet med detta projekt är att undersöka om ökad materialeffektivitet också bidrar till minskade utsläpp av farliga ämnen. Minskar eller ökar utsläppen av farliga ämnen om man ökar materialeffektiviteten? Finns det någon tydlig korrelation eller ej? Med farliga ämnen menar vi framförallt ämnen som hanteras av miljömålet Giftfri miljö och i Naturvårdsverkets strategi för giftfria och resurssnåla kretslopp (GRK), men också andra ämnen som påverkar människors hälsa. Vi utgår ifrån olika strategier för ökad materialeffektivitet (se Tabell S). För varje strategi identifierar vi exempel på hur den leder till ökade eller minskade utsläpp av farliga ämnen. Vi lyfter särskilt fram exempel och slutsatser som rör byggsektorn och livsmedelskedjan, eftersom de lyfts fram som prioriterade områden i GRK-strategin. Utifrån de identifierade exemplen drar vi slutsatsen att det finns många fall där ökad materialeffektivitet också bidrar till en mer giftfri miljö (se Tabell S). I vissa fall ger materialeffektiviteten viktiga miljöfördelar utöver att själva materialproduktionen minskar. Det gäller t ex fallet med småbilar. Det finns dock fall när ökad materialeffektivitet vare sig bidrar till giftfrihet eller andra miljöförbättringar. Det finns även fall där ökad materialeffektivitet bidrar till minskat energibehov, men ändå riskerar att öka användningen av farliga ämnen och/eller spridningen av dem i miljön. Slutligen finns risk för så kallade rebound-effekter om den ökade materialeffektiviteten är kostnadseffektiv. Vår samlade bedömning är att ökad materialeffektivitet ofta ger miljöfördelar också i form av minskade utsläpp av farliga ämnen. Sambandet verkar dock vara svagare än mellan materialeffektivitet och minskade utsläpp av växthusgaser. Osäkerheten är också större, eftersom frågan om farliga utsläpp är mer komplex. Man bör t ex ta hänsyn till farligheten hos ämnet och inte bara till den använda eller utsläppta mängden. Frågan är dessutom mindre utforskad. Ämnet för vår studie omfattar i princip alla material, alla produkter och alla produktionsprocesser. Vi har långt ifrån täckt ämnet fullständigt. Viktiga delar av studien är också relativt ytliga. Våra slutsatser skulle bli säkrare och mer välgrundade om studien breddas med fler exempel och/eller fördjupas på de punkter där den är ytlig. I förlängningen kan också systemanalyser vara motiverade, t ex inför implementeringen av EUs nya ramdirektiv om avfall (EU 2008) i svensk rätt.
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| 4. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, 1963, et al.
(author)
-
Incentives for recycling and incineration in LCA: Polymers in Product Environmental Footprints
- 2021
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- For material recycling to occur, waste material from a product life cycle must be made available for recycling and then used in the production of a new product. When recycling is beneficial for the environment, the LCA results should give incentives to collection for recycling and also to the use of recycled material in new products. However, most established methods for modelling recycling in LCA risk giving little or even wrong incentives. Many methods, such as the Circular Footprint Formula (CFF) in a Product Environmental Footprint (PEF), assign some of the environmental benefits of recycling to the product that uses recycled materials. This means that the incentive to send used products for recycling will be lower. If energy recovery also provides an environmental benefit, because the energy recovered substitutes energy supplied with a greater environmental impact, the LCA results may indicate that the waste should instead be sent to incineration – even when recycling is the environmentally preferable option for the society. This study aims to increase the knowledge on the extent to which PEF results, and LCA results in general, risk giving incorrect incentives for energy recovery from plastic waste. Our calculations focus on the climate impact of the recycling and incineration of LDPE waste generated in Sweden. Since this is a pilot study, we use easily available input data only. We estimate the net climate benefit through simple substitution, where recycled material is assumed to replace virgin material and where energy recovered from LDPE waste is assumed to replace average Swedish district heat and electricity. We then apply the CFF to find whether a PEF would give the same indications. Our results show no risk of a PEF or LCA giving incorrect climate incentives for incineration of fossil LDPE. However, an LCA can wrongly indicate that renewable LDPE should be incinerated rather than recycled. Our results indicate this can happen in a PEF when the heat and electricity substituted by incineration has 40-200% more climate impact than the Swedish average district heat and electricity. Our study also aims to increase knowledge about the extent to which correct incentives can be obtained through a more thorough analysis of incineration with energy recovery – specifically, through: 1. a deeper understanding of Factor B, which in the CFF can be used to assign part of the burdens and benefits of energy recovery to the energy instead of the product investigated, but which in the PEF guidelines by default is set to 0, or 2. a broader systems perspective that accounts for the effects of energy recovery on waste imports and thus waste management in other countries. We estimate Factor B based on the observation that waste incineration can be described as a process with multiple jointly determining functions. Waste treatment and energy recovery both contribute to driving investments in incineration. This, in turn, defines the volume of waste incinerated, the quantity of energy recovered, and the quantity of energy substituted. We propose that expected revenues from gate fees and energy are an appropriate basis for calculating Factor B. Up-to-date estimates of the expected revenues in the relevant region should ideally be used for the calculations. Lacking such data,we suggest the value B=0.6 can be used in the CFF when modelling waste incineration in Sweden. Our PEF calculations with Factor B=0.6 indicate such a PEF will identify the environmentally best option for plastic waste management in almost all cases. However, this is at least in part luck: Factor B will vary over time and between locations, and other parts of the CFF varies between materials. To account for the broader systems perspective, we develop two scenarios based on different assumptions on whether change in Swedish waste imports affects the incineration or landfilling in other European countries. The scenarios bring a large uncertainty into the results. This uncertainty is real in the sense that it is difficult to know how a change in Swedish waste imports in the end will affect waste management in other countries. The uncertainty still makes it difficult to draw conclusions on whether renewable LDPE should be recycled or incinerated. Our suggestions for Factor B and European scenarios both make the CFF more balanced and consistent: it now recognizes that not only recycling but alsoenergy recovery depends on more than the flow of waste from the life cycle investigated. However, neither Factor B nor the broader systems perspective amends the fact that LCA tends to focus on one product at a time. This might not be enough to guide a development that requires coordinated or concerted actions between actors in different life cycles – such as increased recycling or energy recovery. Assessing decisions in one product life cycle at a time might in this context be compared to independently assessing the action of clapping one hand. This will most probably not result in an applaud. Besides a more thorough assessment of energy recovery, we also discuss the option to give correct incentives for recycling from LCA by assigning the full environmental benefit of recycling to the product that generates waste for recycling but also to the product where the recycled material is used. We find that this 100/100 approach can give negative LCA results for products produced from recycled material and recycled to a high degree after recycling, because the benefits of recycling are counted twice. The LCA results would indicate that you save material resources by producing and recycling such products without ever using them. The 100/100 approach also lacks additivity, does not model foreseeable consequences, and does not assign a well-defined environmental value to the recovered secondary material. To guide concerted actions, like recycling or energy recovery, it seems systems analysis should ideally assess the necessary actions in combination. Many situations require the environmental impacts to be estimated for a specific product or a specific action. In some cases, however, the LCA results can be calculated and presented with, for example, the following introduction: “When the material is sent to recycling, you will, together with the recycler and the actor using the recycled material, jointly achieve this net environmental benefit: …” Such joint assessment of supply and demand for secondary materials means the allocation problem is avoided. It is also consistent with the recommendation in the old SETAC “Code of Practice” to assess life cycles with recycling by studying the inputs and outputs from the total linked system.
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| 5. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, 1963, et al.
(author)
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Modelling incineration for more accurate comparisons to recycling in PEF and LCA
- 2021
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In: Waste Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0956-053X .- 1879-2456. ; 136, s. 153-161
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- When recycling is beneficial for the environment, results from a life cycle assessment (LCA) should give incentives to collection for recycling and also to the use of recycled material in new products. Many approaches for modeling recycling in LCA assign part of the environmental benefits of recycling to the product where the recycled material is used. For example, the Circular Footprint Formula in the framework for Product Environmental Footprints (PEF) assigns less than 45% of the benefits of recycling to a polymer product sent to recycling. Our calculations indicate that this creates an incorrect climate incentive for incineration of renewable LDPE, when the recovered energy substitutes energy sources with 100–300% more climate impact than the Swedish average district heat and electricity. The risk of incorrect incentives can be reduced through allocating part of the net benefits of energy recovery to the life cycle where the energy is used; we propose this part can be 60% for Sweden, but probably less in countries without a district-heating network. Alternatively, the LCA can include the alternative treatment of waste that is displaced at the incinerator by waste from the investigated product. These solutions both make the LCA more balanced and consistent. The allocation factor 0.6 at incineration almost eliminates the risk of incorrect incentives in a PEF of renewable polymers. However, the focus of LCA on one product at a time might still make it insufficient to guide recycling, which requires concerted actions between actors in different life cycles.
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Finnveden, Göran, et al.
(author)
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Policy instruments towards a sustainable waste management
- 2013
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In: Sustainability. - Basel : MDPI AG. - 2071-1050. ; 5:3, s. 841-881
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The aim of this paper is to suggest and discuss policy instruments that could lead towards a more sustainable waste management. The paper is based on evaluations from a large scale multi-disciplinary Swedish research program. The evaluations focus on environmental and economic impacts as well as social acceptance. The focus is on the Swedish waste management system but the results should be relevant also for other countries. Through the assessments and lessons learned during the research program we conclude that several policy instruments can be effective and possible to implement. Particularly, we put forward the following policy instruments: “Information”; “Compulsory recycling of recyclable materials”; “Weight-based waste fee in combination with information and developed recycling systems”; “Mandatory labeling of products containing hazardous chemicals”, “Advertisements on request only and other waste minimization measures”; and “Differentiated VAT and subsidies for some services”. Compulsory recycling of recyclable materials is the policy instrument that has the largest potential for decreasing the environmental impacts with the configurations studied here. The effects of the other policy instruments studied may be more limited and they typically need to be implemented in combination in order to have more significant impacts. Furthermore, policy makers need to take into account market and international aspects when implementing new instruments. In the more long term perspective, the above set of policy instruments may also need to be complemented with more transformational policy instruments that can significantly decrease the generation of waste.
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| 8. |
- Finnveden, Göran, et al.
(author)
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Policy Instruments towards a sustainable waste management
- 2016
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In: Solid waste management: Policy and planning for a sustainable society. - : Apple Academic Press. - 9781771883740 - 9780429091650 ; , s. 185-246, s. 185-246
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)
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| 9. |
- Hagberg, Linus, et al.
(author)
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LCA calculations on Swedish wood pellet production chains - according to the Renewable Energy Directive
- 2009
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The study includes calculations of typical life cycle emissions of greenhouse gases for representative Swedish pellet production chains in accordance with the calculation rules in RED (Directive 2009/28/EC). The study also intends to analyse how the directive is applicable on solid biofuels in general and on wood pellet production in particular, and to identify such aspects of the methodology in RED that are associated with obscurities, problems or lead to misleading results compared to other life cycle analysis principles. The report includes a large number of alternative calculations to show how different facts, assumptions and methodological choices affect the results. This includes the effect of what fuels are used for drying, different transport distances, assumed fuel mix for purchased electricity, the variance in efficiency between the investigated plants as well as the effect of different interpretations of the RED methodology for greenhouse gas calculations.
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| 10. |
- Lindfors, Lars-Gunnar, et al.
(author)
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The ILCD Handbook in a NUTSHELL - A brief analysis of the ILCD Handbook and the Draft Guidance on Product Environmental Footprint
- 2012
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- ILCD står för International Reference Life Cycle Data System Handbook. Syftet med vår rapport är att beskriva uppkomsten och innehållet i ILCD-handboken och jämföra de rekommenderar som ges jämfört med god praxis inom livscykelanalys (LCA). Vi fångar också upp den första tillämpningen av handboken som är preliminära riktlinjer för "Environmental Footprints", och då speciellt "Product Environmental Footprints" (PEF). Riktlinjer för dessa Footprints finns i en preliminär "PEF Guide". Rapporten tar i första hand upp metodfrågor, krav och riktlinjer för miljöprofiler/footprints för produkter, men det finns även motsvarande riktlinjer för organisationer. ILCD-handboken är skriven för LCA-experter. För att branschföreningar, företag och myndigheter ska kunna utnyttja den här rapporten i sin pågående dialog med EU-kommissionen kring PEF-guiden har den skrivits för läsare som har en god kunskap eller åtminstone baskunskap om LCA-metodiken.
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| 11. |
- Poulikidou, Sofia, 1984, et al.
(author)
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Impacts on fuel producers and customers of conflicting rules for life cycle assessment
- 2022
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The use of life cycle assessment (LCA) as a tool for estimating the environmental performance of a product or service in a holistic and systematic manner is increasing. Fuel producers may need to apply different methodological frameworks to be used in different contexts; internally for product development activities as well as externally for communication with customers or authorities. Different LCA frameworks may vary in scope, system boundaries (i.e. life cycle stages to be considered) or modelling requirements (such as data demands but also more detailed methodological features). They may also vary in terms of information they can provide in relation to the environmental performance of the product. Those variations could lead to conflicting outcomes and conclusions and may also increase complexity for the LCA practitioner leading to high competence and resource requirements. Within the research project: Impacts on fuel producers and customers of conflicting rules for LCA , the requirements of different LCA frameworks and their implications to fuel producers are investigated. Focus has been given on three specific frameworks that are identified as relevant or potentially relevant for fuel producers, namely: the recast of the EU Renewable Energy Directive (referred to here as RED II), the EU framework for Product Environmental Footprint (PEF), and the framework of Environmental Product Declaration (EPD). The aim of the project is to increase understanding on the different LCA frameworks available and identify whether the multitude of such frameworks gives conflicting recommendations for environmental improvements and fuel choices. The three LCA frameworks listed above were applied in case studies. To illustrate the potential differences that the different frameworks may lead to, a variation of production pathways and feedstocks were selected including first generation as well as advanced biofuels. Based on the results obtained it can be concluded that applying all three frameworks is not a straightforward task. The methods contain fundamental differences and are at different levels of development, maturity, and adoption. In certain situations, they can lead to diverging conclusions as a result of different quantitative outcomes for a specific production pathway, thus influencing decision making processes in different directions. Understanding those differences and underlying assumptions is important for understanding the variations in outcome. The result for a specific fuel could differ substantially depending on the framework applied and the assumptions and interpretations made when applying this framework. Certain methodological parameters were identified to have a greater impact on the results than others: • The three frameworks diverge in the methods applied for modelling waste management, which can be very important for the results when the biofuel is produced from waste. • The frameworks diverge in what approaches are allowed for modelling processes with multiple products. This can be very important for the results when the fuel is co-produced with other products. • The frameworks also diverge in how the electricity supply is modelled. This is not very important for the results in most of our case studies, because the production of these biofuels does not require a lot of electricity. The study confirms that applying a framework like EPD or PEF in addition to RED II would require significant supplementary efforts. Not only because of different rules which were often contradicting or difficult to interpret but also because of additional data and reporting requirements. The need for expertise and resources is increasing for fuel producers to be able to provide EPD and PEF compliant assessments. To enhance the development and harmonization of LCA approaches this project stresses the need for product specific rules (in the form of Product Environmental Category Rules (PEFCR) and Product Category Rules (PCR)) for renewable fuels. Future versions of all three studied frameworks should be clearer on how specific methodological choices are to be applied (e.g., when it comes to allocation and multifunctional processes) as well as when it comes to model electricity supply. RED for example shall be clearer on how to define the electricity region while EPD guidelines on how to define the electricity market. Although it is not realistic to aim for a single unified LCA framework, the biofuel PCR and PEFCR can be developed with RED in mind. Some aspects of the PEF methodology can perhaps also be integrated into RED III that is currently under development. This would enhance the broader adoption of the frameworks among fuel producers. Finally, the involvement and engagement of the industry, and fuel producers themselves is very important. Industry initiatives are essential for the development of biofuel PCR and PEFCR while the general development of the three frameworks can also be influenced. In this study, we also investigated the relationship between the LCA frameworks and schemes for chain of custody certification (CoCC), in particular schemes for mass balance certifications (MBC) to investigate to what extent these schemes complement or overlap with LCA. The purpose of MBC schemes and LCA are different, in the sense that the first aim at verifying the sources and sustainability of total amounts of raw materials used by tracking them throughout the value chain, while the second at quantifying specific environmental impact. The system boundaries are similar, since both cover the entire value chain, but may be applied differently depending on the detailed frameworks applied and choices made in applying the MBC schemes. By identifying and clearly illustrating the variations among the studied frameworks the study enhances application, development, and harmonization of LCA, in a broader perspective, informs LCA practitioners but also decision makers and provides insights on how the identified challenges can be addressed.
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| 12. |
- Tillman, Anne-Marie, 1958, et al.
(author)
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Choice of system boundaries in life cycle assessment
- 1994
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In: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-6526. ; 2:1, s. 21-29
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- System boundaries in life cycle assessments (LCA) must be specified in several dimensions: boundaries between the technological system and nature, delimitations of the geographical area and time horizon considered, boundaries between production and production of capital goods and boundaries between the life cycle of the product studied and related life cycles of other products. Principles for choice of system boundaries are discussed, especially concerning the last dimension. Three methods for defining the contents of the analysed system in this respect are described: process tree, technological whole system and socio-economic whole system. The methods are described in the application's multi-output processes and cascade recycling, and examples are discussed. It is concluded that system boundaries must be relevant in relation to the purpose of an LCA, that processes outside the process tree in many cases have more influence on the result than details within the process tree, and that the different methods need to be further compared in practice and evaluated with respect to both relevance, feasibility and uncertainty.
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| 13. |
- Ahlgren, Erik, 1962, et al.
(author)
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Assessing long-term sustainability of district heating systems
- 2012
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In: Proceedings EcoBalance Yokohama Nov 20-23 2012.
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Biomass has become the main fuel for district heating (DH) systems in Sweden, and the substitution of biomass for oil during the last decades has led to considerably reduced CO2 emissions within the DH systems. Today, biomass is used both in heat- only boilers and, increasingly, in combined heat-and-power plants. District heating contributes also to increased sustainability through the utilization of industrial waste heat, which substitutes for primary energy use.With increasing pressure on constrained biomass resources and due to the geographical distribution of waste-heat sources, the municipal DH systems need to look for new solutions in order to further reduce their dependency on primary energy sources and enhance their sustainability. An integration of local systems into a regional heat system would allow for utilization of an increasing amount of waste heat, to capture scale effects of biomass combined heat and power plants and also to compensate for load profile differences between the local systems. DH systems are in addition being increasingly integrated with the power system and also with biorefineries through the production of bio transport fuels. Thus, the role of DH systems is becoming increasingly complex. This calls for new tools and methods to assess the sustainability of various possible future options and developments.The aim of the study is to assess the long-term sustainability of different DH developments with a focus on possibilities for integration of local DH systems into a regional system. In order to assess the sustainability in a long-term perspective of future DH options, we combine methods such as energy systems modeling and life cycle assessment in a procedural framework called life cycle sustainability assessment. The energy systems model applied is an optimizing bottom-up model. The study concerns the Vastra Gotaland region of Sweden and our model represents all the municipal DH systems at a detailed level. This presentation will mainly focus on the methodological aspects of the work: on how the different methods can be integrated and applied in a sustainability assessment of future district heating.
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Ahlgren, Serina, et al.
(author)
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Review of methodological choices in LCA of biorefinery systems - key issues and recommendations
- 2015
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In: Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining. - : Wiley. - 1932-1031 .- 1932-104X. ; 9:5, s. 606-619
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Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The current trend in biomass conversion technologies is toward more efficient utilization of biomass feedstock in multiproduct biorefineries. Many life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies of biorefinery systems have been performed but differ in how they use the LCA methodology. Based on a review of existing LCA standards and guidelines, this paper provides recommendations on how to handle key methodological issues when performing LCA studies of biorefinery systems. Six key issues were identified: (i) goal definition, (ii) functional unit, (iii) allocation of biorefinery outputs, (iv) allocation of biomass feedstock, (v) land use, and (vi) biogenic carbon and timing of emissions. Many of the standards and guidelines reviewed here provide only general methodological recommendations. Some make more specific methodological recommendations, but these often differ between standards. In this paper we present some clarifications (e.g. examples of research questions and suitable functional units) and methodological recommendations (e.g. on allocation).
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| 16. |
- Andrae, Anders, 1973, et al.
(author)
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The shift to lead-free solders - assessed through attributional and consequential life cycle inventory
- 2004
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In: InLCA/LCM Internet conference.
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Electronics packaging is a research field that deals with everything in electronics, from the chip to the complete system, including the solder interconnection materials. As of July 1st of 2006, lead will not be allowed in solder pastes. This has called for evaluations of alternatives to tin-lead solders, and especially the environmental consequences of the shift from tin-lead solder paste (TL) to lead-free solder paste (LF). In 2003 a life cycle assessment (LCA) was initiated, having two aims: (i) to compare an TL (62% tin, 36% lead, 2% silver) to an LF (95.5% tin, 3.8% silver, 0.7% copper); both pastes assumed to include 10% flux, and (ii) to compare attributional and consequential LCA methodologies. The attributional LCA describes the environmental burdens of the solder life cycle. It describes, for example, the obvious fact that the shift from TL to LF means that lead is essentially eliminated from the solder life cycle. Our attributional LCA is largely based on literature data. Lacking environmental data for flux production, we used the economic input-output model from Carnegie Mellon to obtain approximate values . Preliminary results from the attributional LCA, indicate that LF contributes 10% more to the global warming potential (GWP) than TL. 60% of the difference, can be related to an increased reflow energy consumption, and 40% to an increased tin production. The production of flux contributed to about 5 % of the total GWP results for both solders. We have recently started the consequential LCA. It aims at describing how the environmental burdens of the technosphere are affected by a shift from TL to LF. It will describe, for example, to what extent the shift means that the total use of lead is reduced, and to what extent it means that the use of lead will increase in other life cycles. We do not expect the consequential LCA to include all inputs to the solder, because, for each input in the analysis, we need to investigate the supply curve as well as the demand curve, identifying price elasticities, marginal production, and marginal consumption.
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| 17. |
- Andreasi Bassi, Susanna, et al.
(author)
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A life cycle assessment framework for large-scale changes in material circularity
- 2021
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In: Waste Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0956-053X .- 1879-2456. ; 135, s. 360-371
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Increasing material circularity is high on the agenda of the European Union in order to decouple environmental impacts and economic growth. While life cycle assessment (LCA) is useful for quantifying the associated environmental impacts, consistent LCA modeling of the large-scale changes arising from policy targets addressing material circularity (i.e., recycled content and recycling rate) is challenging. In response to this, we propose an assessment framework addressing key steps in LCA, namely, goal definition, functional unit, baseline versus alternative scenario definition, and modeling of system responses. Regulatory and economic aspects (e.g., trends in consumption patterns, market responses, market saturation, and legislative side-policies affecting waste management) are emphasized as critical for the identification of potential system responses and for supporting regulatory interventions required to reach the intended environmental benefits. The framework is recommended for LCA studies focusing on system-wide consequences where allocation between product life cycles is not relevant; however, the framework can be adapted to include allocation. The application of the framework was illustrated by an example of implementing a policy target for 2025 of 70% recycled content in PET trays in EU27+1. It was demonstrated that neglecting large-scale market responses and saturation lead to an overestimation of the environmental benefits from the policy target and that supplementary initiatives are required to achieve the full benefits at system level.
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| 18. |
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
- Börjeson, Lena, et al.
(author)
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Scenario types and techniques : Towards a user's guide
- 2006
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In: Futures. - : Elsevier. - 0016-3287 .- 1873-6378. ; 38:7, s. 723-739
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Various scenario typologies have been suggested in attempts to make the field of futures studies easier to overview. Our typology is based on the scenario user's need to know what will happen, what can happen, and/or how a predefined target can be achieved. We discuss the applicability of various generating, integrating and consistency techniques for developing scenarios that provide the required knowledge. The paper is intended as a step towards a guide as to how scenarios can be developed and used.
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| 21. |
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| 22. |
- Ekvall, Tomas
(author)
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A systemic and systematic approach to the development of a policy mix for material resource efficiency
- 2016
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In: Sustainability. - 2071-1050. ; 8:4, s. 373ff-
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Increasing material use efficiency is important to mitigate future supply risks and minimize environmental impacts associated with the production of the materials. The policy mix presented in this paper aims to contribute to reducing the use of virgin metals in the EU by 80 percent by 2050 without significant shifting of burdens to other material resources, environmental impacts, or parts of the world. We used a heuristic framework and a systems perspective for designing the policy mix that combines primary instruments designed to increase material efficiency, recycling and substitution of materials (a materials tax, the extended producer responsibility, technical regulations, and environmental taxes) and supportive instruments aimed to reduce barriers to implementing the primary instruments and to contribute towards the policy objectives (e.g., research and development support, and advanced recycling centers). Furthermore, instruments were designed so as to increase political feasibility: e.g., taxes were gradually increased as part of a green fiscal reform, and border-tax adjustments were introduced to reduce impacts on competitiveness. However, even in such a policy mix design ongoing ex-ante assessments indicate that the policy mix will be politically difficult to implement — and also fall short of achieving the 80 percent reduction target. Nonetheless, we suggest combining primary and supportive instruments into coherent and dynamic policy mixes as a promising step towards system reconfigurations for sustainability.
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| 23. |
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| 26. |
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| 27. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, 1963
(author)
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Attributional and consequential life cycle assessment
- 2020
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In: Sustainability Assessment at the 21st century. - : IntechOpen. ; , s. 42-62
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- An attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) estimates what share of the global environmental burdens belongs to a product. A consequential LCA (CLCA) gives an estimate of how the global environmental burdens are affected by the production and use of the product. The distinction arose to resolve debates on what input data to use in an LCA and how to deal with allocation problems. An ALCA is based on average data, and allocation is performed by partitioning environmental burdens of a process between the life cycles served by this process. A CLCA ideally uses marginal data in many parts of the life cycle and avoids allocation through system expansion. This chapter aims to discuss and clarify the key concepts. It also discusses pros and cons of different methodological options, based on criteria derived from the starting point that environmental systems analysis should contribute to reducing the negative environmental impacts of humankind or at least reduce the impacts per functional unit: the method should be feasible and generate results that are accurate, comprehensible, inspiring, and robust. The CLCA is more accurate, but ALCA has other advantages. The decision to make an ALCA or a CLCA should ideally be taken by the LCA practitioner after discussions with the client and possibly with other stakeholders and colleagues.
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| 28. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, 1963, et al.
(author)
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Avfall som bränsle
- 2004
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- SammanfattningBakgrundAvfallet blir ett allt viktigare bränsle för fjärrvärmeproduktionen. Det är en följd av förbudet mot att deponera brännbart avfall. En framtida, stor import av avfall förstärker den effekten. Avfallsförbränningen påverkar också elsystemet. Fjärrvärme från avfall konkurrerar å ena sidan ut elbaserad fjärrvärme. Å andra sidan konkurrerar konventionell avfallsförbränning också ut annan, mer effektiv kraftvärmeproduktion. Forskningens inriktningSedan 1987 har Energisystemteknik arbetat med systemstudier av lokala, regionala och nationella avfallshanteringssystem. Vår huvudinriktning är att analysera och utveckla metoder och modeller för att analysera det övergripande avfallshanteringssystemet med fokus på energirelaterade frågor. Under treårsperioden 2001-2003 inriktades forskningsverksamheten vid avfallsgruppen framförallt på fyra delprojekt:Avfallsförbränning i de framtida fjärrvärmesystemen. Avfallsförbränningen i Sverige kommer att nästan fördubblas under de närmaste åren. Det har givit upphov till många känslor och åsikter, inte bara inom avfallsområdet, utan även hos fjärrvärmeaktörerna. I detta delprojekt studerade vi vilka bränslen avfallet konkurrerar med i fjärrvärmesektorn, och hur kraftvärmeproduktionen påverkas av utbyggnaden.Import av avfallsbränslen. Under de senaste tio åren har avfallsbranschen fört åtskilliga diskussioner kring frågor om import av avfallsbaserade bränslen. Kärnfrågan har varit om man ska förhindra, acceptera eller till och med förorda avfallshandel mellan länderna inom Norden och EU. I detta delprojekt studerar vi drivkrafterna för avfallsimport, och hur dessa drivkrafter kan utvecklas i framtiden.Slam som bränsle och näringsämne. På grund av tungmetallhalter och larmrapporter rörande t ex risken för spridning av sjukdomar och bromerade flamskyddsmedel, har det blivit svårt att få avsättning för slam på åkermark. År 2005 införs dessutom ett förbud mot deponering av organiskt avfall vilket även kommer att gälla för slam. Mot denna bakgrund växer nya tekniker och metoder fram för att behandla slammet och utvinna energi och/eller näringsämnen ur det. Vi har studerat de effekter framväxande teknikerna ger upphov till i avfallshanteringssystemet, energisystemet och vatten- och avloppsreningssystemet.Ny avfallsteknik. En trolig följd av att allt mer avfall styrs mot förbränning är att mottagningsavgifterna till avfallsförbränning stiger kraftigt. Då ökar incitamenten för andra aktörer att utveckla ny teknik som har andra egenskaper än avfallsförbränning, t ex en större elproduktion eller en mer stabil restprodukt. I detta delprojekt fokuserar vi på pyrolys och annan förgasning av avfallet. Vi jämför dessa mot konventionell avfallsförbränning. ResultatSom en följd av deponiförbudet för brännbart avfall planerar fjärrvärmeföretagen i Sverige att nästan fördubbla avfallsförbränningen. Det kommer att påverka fjärrvärmeproduktionen olika i olika kommuner. Sett över hela landet kommer mängden fjärrvärme från avfall att öka med 6,6 TWh/år. Den totala mängden fjärrvärme blir dock bara 0,9 TWh/år större. Det betyder att 5,7 TWh/år av annan fjärrvärmeproduktion konkurreras ut. Det är framförallt fjärrvärmeproduktion baserad på biobränsle (3,3 TWh/år), men även fjärrvärme som produceras med olja (0,6 TWh/år), naturgas (0,5 TWh/år), spillvärme (0,4 TWh/år), värmepumpar (0,3 TWh/år) mm. I teorin kan avfall användas för att minska användningen av fossila bränslen. Våra resultat visar att avfallet i praktiken snarare konkurrerar ut biobränslen från fjärrvärmeproduktionen. Om syftet är att minimera den totala användningen av fossila bränslen, behöver det biobränsle som konkurreras ut från fjärrvärmesektorn hitta andra marknader.Mottagningsavgifterna till avfallsförbränning är betydligt lägre i Sverige än i Tyskland, Norge, Holland och Danmark. En viktig förutsättning för att kunna hålla ned kostnaderna vid avfallsförbränning är att det finns avsättning för den utvunna energin. I detta avseende har Sverige en gynnsam position i jämförelse med Norge, Holland och Tyskland. I Sverige liksom i Danmark är fjärrvärmen väl utbyggd, vilket innebär stora marknader för den utvunna energin. Svensk avfallsförbränning gynnas också av energi- och koldioxidskatterna som utgår på förbränning av fossila bränslen. Dessa skatter har drivit upp produktionskostnaderna för fjärrvärmeproduktion vilket innebär att värdet på värmen som framställs från avfallet har ökat. Deponiförbud och höga deponiskatter i Danmark, Norge och Holland samt skatt på avfallsförbränning i Danmark och Norge ger också ekonomiska incitament till att transportera avfallet till förbränning i Sverige. Återföring av slam till åkermark har lägre kostnader men större miljöpåverkan än de övriga alternativ för slamhantering som vi studerat: samförbränning av slam och avfall, BioCon-processen och Cambi-KREPRO-processen. Samförbränning har högst kostnader men minst miljöpåverkan. De två andra teknikerna, som syftar till att både utvinna fosfor och energi ur slammet, är nya och oprövade i kommersiella sammanhang. Data över dessa tekniker är därmed behäftade med stora osäkerheter. Skillnaderna mellan de två nya teknikerna är dock relativt liten. Resultaten gäller specifikt för Göteborg. För att generalisera dem till hela Sverige krävs en analys av effekterna i de lokala fjärrvärmesystem som berörs.Det är svårt att producera elenergi effektivt med avfall som bränsle. Därför kommer den planerade utbyggnaden av avfallsförbränning att leda till att potentialen för elproduktion i kraftvärmeverk minskar med ca 0,4 TWh/år. En större mängd elenergi skulle kunna produceras från avfallet om det förgasas eller pyrolyseras och man eldar den bildade gasen. Pyrolys eller förgasning har också fördelen att askan kan bli mindre farlig än vid vanlig avfallsförbränning. Det verkar dock vara svårt att göra dessa tekniker kommersiellt konkurrenskraftiga.
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| 29. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, et al.
(author)
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Bridging the gap between the sustainability pillars
- 2012
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- A thorough assessment of the sustainability performance of a product, a system, or a decision requires expertise on environmental, economic, and social aspects. In an assessment that involves researchers from different disciplines, communication is challenging because of different background knowledge, terminology, research traditions, etc.In the research program Towards Sustainable Waste Management, a new approach to interdisciplinary interaction was tested. The program included a group of researchers on life cycle assessment (LCA) and systems analysis of waste management. To this group, specialists in national economy, environmental psychology, and ethnology were linked in various projects. In each specific research project at least 20% of the budget was allocated to a waste LCA expert, who, through participating actively in the project, would be an interpreter, a two-way bridge between the disciplines. The first purpose of this LCA expert was to interpret the sustainability questions and to help make the research relevant for the overall purpose of the research program. The second purpose was to interpret the results of the specialists’ research and to help making the results useful for the overall program.Our experience demonstrates that this set-up forces the specialists and their interpreters/bridges to face the challenge of understanding each other. Establishing such an interdisciplinary interaction requires that the researchers share a mutual interest in trying to reach understanding. However, despite this interest and despite the significant resources made available for the participation, our collaboration was restricted by the fact that it can be difficult for the specialists to find suitable tasks in their projects for the LCA expert. The chance of the interaction being successful increases if the background knowledge of the researchers in the project overlaps, if they have similar research cultures, if they share a common interest in the research questions, and/or if the disciplinary scientists are accustomed to interdisciplinary collaboration.
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| 35. |
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| 36. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, 1963
(author)
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Economists wanted in life cycle assessment
- 2002
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In: 10th International Conference of the Greening of Industry Network, Gothenburg, Sweden, June 2002.
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)
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| 37. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, et al.
(author)
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Effects of policy instruments on waste intensities
- 2010
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- As part of the research programme Towards Sustainable Waste Management, this report includes a discussion on how various policy instruments can affect the waste intensity coefficients in the general equilibrium model EMEC, when this model is used for calculating the Swedish waste quantity for the year 2030. We find that information to households can be assumed to reduce the waste intensity of households by 10%, as a calculation example. Paper waste from households can be reduced by 20% if direct advertisements are distributed only to households that state that they want such information. We expect information to companies and organisations, tax on hazardous waste, and a differentiated Value Added Tax to have little effect on the waste intensity coefficients. For several other policy instruments discussed in this report, the effects on waste intensity coefficients can be significant, but we have no basis for making quantitative assumptions.
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| 38. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, 1963
(author)
-
Energisystemforskarnas roller i beslutsprocessen
- 2004
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In: Sveriges Energiting 2004 - Referat från den 9:e mars, Swedish Energy Agency, Eskilstuna, Sweden. ; , s. p. 106-
-
Conference paper (other academic/artistic)
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| 39. |
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| 47. |
- Ekvall, Tomas
(author)
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Miljöaspekter på val av stommaterial i byggnader. Kompletterande kartläggning av kunskapsläget
- 2006
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Detta är en litteraturöversikt som syftar till att kartlägga livscykelanalyser och liknande studier över flervåningshus byggda med trä och andra stombyggnadsmaterial, att redovisa de underlag de studierna ger för bedömning av stommaterialens betydelse för CO2-utsläpp mm, och att identifiera kunskapsluckor och brister i utredningarna m a p stommaterialens miljöpåverkan i ett livscykelperspektiv. I de flesta av de jämförande studier som granskats i denna översikt leder trästommar till lägre utsläpp av CO2. Liksom i tidigare litteraturöversikter växlar stommaterialets betydelse dock kraftigt mellan olika studier. Byggnadens miljöbelastning domineras visserligen av användningsfasen, men valet av stommaterial verkar inte ha stor betydelse för användningsfasens miljöbelastning. De breda systemaspekterna, som träprodukternas påverkan på skogens tillväxt, användningen av biprodukter och av sparad skog mm, kan därför vara viktigare än själva användningen av huset i en miljömässig jämförelse av olika stommaterial. Ifall fokus läggs på de breda systemaspekterna, har trästommar en betydande potential till att reducera utsläppen av CO2. Både skogsindustrins biprodukter och själva trästommarna kan utnyttjas i energisystemet och ersätta fossila bränslen. Hur mycket av denna potential som kommer att realiseras är dock osäkert. Viktiga metodval i livscykelanalyser kommer alltid att vara beroende av värderingar, perspektiv och förkunskaper hos den grupp som genomför studien. Det betyder att det inte går att få objektiva svar på om och hur mycket CO2-utsläppen minskar då trä används som stommaterial. Istället för att sikta på objektivitet bör man sträva efter att få bred acceptans för studiens metodval och därmed för dess resultat. För att få ett mer robust underlag för policybeslut kan en studie genomföras med deltagande av forskare och/eller industrirepresentanter från alla de konkurrerande branscherna.
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| 48. |
- Ekvall, Tomas
(author)
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Miljöbedömning av energibärare - vägledning för livscykelanalyser
- 2018
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Bokföringsberäkning eller konsekvensanalys, marginal eller medel, allokering? Begreppen är många när det gäller miljöbedömning av energi och beslut krävs i många olika metodfrågor. I denna rapport reder IVL ut några centrala begrepp kring miljöbedömning av energi i ett livscykelperspektiv. Där det är möjligt ger vi också rekommendationer för några av de viktigaste metodvalen. Stora delar av diskussionen är giltig också för livscykelanalyser av annat än energibärare.
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| 49. |
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| 50. |
- Ekvall, Tomas, et al.
(author)
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Modeling recycling in life cycle assessment
- 2020
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The method for modeling material recycling can have a decisive impact on the environmental assessment of products if they have a high content of recycled material or if they are recycled after use. The recent EU guideline on Product Environmental Footprint includes a rather complex approach. In response to this, the Swedish Life Cycle Center gathered companies, researchers and authorities in this project aiming to collect and disseminate knowledge on existing approaches to allocation at open-loop recycling, to systematically assess these methods, test them in case studies, and to investigate to what extent consensus can be reached among the Swedish actors on how recycling should be modelled in an LCA. Information on twelve existing approaches is collected through a literature survey covering international standards, important guidelines and a selection of scientific papers. They are assessed with a set of indicators developed based on the view that methods for environmental systems analysis are good to the extent that they can be assumed to contribute to reduced environmental impacts or, at least, to reduced environmental impacts per functional unit. After case-studies and a debate, we present an application-dependent structure for requirements on the methods for modelling recycling in life cycle assessments.
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