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1.	Mekjavic, Polona Jaki, et al. (author) Visual function after prolonged bed rest 2002 In: Journal of gravitational physiology : a journal of the International Society for Gravitational Physiology. - 1077-9248. ; 501, s. 141-142 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The present study evaluated the claim of earlier reports, that of bed rest-induced alterations in visual function. Indices of visual function were studied in 10 healthy male subjects, during 35 days of horizontal bed rest. Before and after the 35 day bed rest, both eyes of all subjects were examined for visual acuity, intraocular pressure, contrast sensitivity, stereopsis and visual field. Pre- and post-bed rest values were compared with Student's T-test. There were no significant differences in any of the measured indices of visual function.
2.	Berg, Hans E., et al. (author) Hip, thigh and calf muscle atrophy and bone loss after 5-week bedrest inactivity 2007 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 99:3, s. 283-289 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Unloaded inactivity induces atrophy and functional deconditioning of skeletal muscle, especially in the lower extremities. Information is scarce, however, regarding the effect of unloaded inactivity on muscle size and function about the hip. Regional bone loss has been demonstrated in hips and knees of elderly orthopaedic patients, as quantified by computerized tomography (CT). This method remains to be validated in healthy individuals rendered inactive, including real or simulated weightlessness. In this study, ten healthy males were subjected to 5 weeks of experimental bedrest and five matched individuals served as ambulatory controls. Maximum voluntary isometric hip and knee extension force were measured using the strain gauge technique. Cross-sectional area (CSA) of hip, thigh and calf muscles, and radiological density (RD) of the proximal tibial bone were measured using CT. Bedrest decreased (P < 0.05) average (SD) muscle strength by 20 (8)% in knee extension, and by 22 (12)% in hip extension. Bedrest induced atrophy (P < 0.05) of extensor muscles in the gluteal region, thigh and calf, ranging from 2 to 12%. Atrophy was more pronounced in the knee extensors [9 (4)%] and ankle plantar flexors [12 (3)%] than in the gluteal extensor muscles [2 (2)%]. Bone density of the proximal tibia decreased (P < 0.05) by 3 (2)% during bedrest. Control subjects did not show any temporal changes in muscle or bone indices (P > 0.05), when examined at similar time intervals. The present findings of a substantial loss in hip extensor strength and a smaller, yet significant atrophy of these muscles, demonstrate that hip muscle deconditioning accompanies losses in thigh and calf muscle mass after bedrest. This suggests that comprehensive quantitative studies on impaired locomotor function after inactivity should include all joints of the lower extremity. Our results also demonstrate that a decreased RD, indicating bone mineral loss, can be shown already after 5 weeks of unloaded bedrest, using a standard CT technique.
3.	Chowdhury, Helena H, et al. (author) Systemic Hypoxia Increases the Expression of DPP4 in Preadipocytes of Healthy Human Participants 2017 In: Experimental and clinical endocrinology & diabetes. - : Georg Thieme Verlag KG. - 0947-7349 .- 1439-3646. Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) is a transmembrane glycoprotein involved in protein degradation. Due to its action on incretins, which increase insulin secretion, DPP4 is considered a therapeutic target for type 2 diabetes. Here we have studied the role of single and combined effects of hypoxia and inactivity on the expression of DPP4 in human adipose tissue of 12 adult normal-weight males. Fat biopsies were obtained at baseline and after each of three experimental campaigns. The results revealed that in isolated human preadipocytes the expression of DPP4 was significantly increased by exposure of participants to hypoxia. Physical inactivity per se had no apparent effect on the DPP4 expression. It is concluded that DPP4 may be a marker to monitor indirectly tissue hypoxia, as occurs in obese subjects.
4.	Ciuha, Ursa, et al. (author) Effects of normobaric hypoxic bed rest on the thermal comfort zone 2015 In: Journal of Thermal Biology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0306-4565 .- 1879-0992. ; 49-50, s. 39-46 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Future Lunar and Mars habitats will maintain a hypobaric hypoxic environment to minimise the risk of decompression sickness during the preparation for extra-vehicular activity. This study was part of a larger study investigating the separate and combined effects of inactivity associated with reduced gravity and hypoxia, on the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, neurohumoural, and thermoregulatory systems. Eleven healthy normothermic young male subjects participated in three trials conducted on separate occasions: (1) Normobaric hypoxic ambulatory confinement, (2) Normobaric hypoxic bedrest and (3) Normobaric normoxic bedrest Normobaric hypoxia was achieved by reduction of the oxygen fraction in the air (FiO2=0.141 +/- 0.004) within the facility, while the effects of reduced gravity were simulated by confining the subjects to a horizontal position in bed, with all daily routines performed in this position for 21 days. The present study investigated the effect of the interventions on behavioural temperature regulation. The characteristics of the thermal comfort zone (TCZ) were assessed by a water-perfused suit, with the subjects instructed to regulate the sinusoidally varying temperature of the suit within a range considered as thermally comfortable. Measurements were performed 5 days prior to the intervention (D-5), and on days 10 (D10) and 20 (D20) of the intervention. no statistically significant differences were found in any of the characteristics of the TCZ between the interventions (HAMB, HBR and NBR), or between different measurement days (D-5, D10, D20) within each intervention. rectal temperature remained stable, whereas skin temperature (T-sk) increased during all interventions throughout the one hour trial, no difference in T-sk between 0-5, D10 and D20, and between HAMB, HBR and NBR were revealed, subjects perceived the regulated temperature as thermally comfortable, and neutral or warm, we conclude that regulation of thermal comfort is not compromised by hypoxic inactivity. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
5.	Ciuha, Urša, et al. (author) Heat acclimation enhances the cold-induced vasodilation response. 2021 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Nature. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 121:11, s. 3005-3015 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract PURPOSE: It has been reported that the cold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) response can be trained using either regular local cold stimulation or exercise training. The present study investigated whether repeated exposure to environmental stressors, known to improve aerobic performance (heat and/or hypoxia), could also provide benefit to the CIVD response.METHODS: Forty male participants undertook three 10-day acclimation protocols including daily exercise training: heat acclimation (HeA; daily exercise training at an ambient temperature, Ta = 35 °C), combined heat and hypoxic acclimation (HeA/HypA; daily exercise training at Ta = 35 °C, while confined to a simulated altitude of ~ 4000 m) and exercise training in normoxic thermoneutral conditions (NorEx; no environmental stressors). To observe potential effects of the local acclimation on the CIVD response, participants additionally immersed their hand in warm water (35 °C) daily during the HeA/HypA and NorEx. Before and after the acclimation protocols, participants completed hand immersions in cold water (8 °C) for 30 min, followed by 15-min recovery phases. The temperature was measured in each finger.RESULTS: Following the HeA protocol, the average temperature of all five fingers was higher during immersion (from 13.9 ± 2.4 to 15.5 ± 2.5 °C; p = 0.04) and recovery (from 22.2 ± 4.0 to 25.9 ± 4.9 °C; p = 0.02). The HeA/HypA and NorEx protocols did not enhance the CIVD response.CONCLUSION: Whole-body heat acclimation increased the finger vasodilatory response during cold-water immersion, and enhanced the rewarming rate of the hand, thus potentially contributing to improved local cold tolerance. Daily hand immersion in warm water for 10 days during HeA/Hyp and NorEx, did not contribute to any changes in the CIVD response.
6.	Debevec, Tadej, et al. (author) Acute short-term hyperoxia followed by mild hypoxia does not increase EPO production : resolving the "normobaric oxygen paradox'' 2012 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 112:3, s. 1059-1065 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Recent findings suggest that besides renal tissue hypoxia, relative decrements in tissue oxygenation, using a transition of the breathing mixture from hyperoxic to normoxic, can also stimulate erythropoietin (EPO) production. To further clarify the importance of the relative change in tissue oxygenation on plasma EPO concentration [EPO], we investigated the effect of a consecutive hyperoxic and hypoxic breathing intervention. Eighteen healthy male subjects were assigned to either IHH (N = 10) or CON (N = 8) group. The IHH group breathed pure oxygen (F(i)O(2) ~ 1.0) for 1 h, followed by a 1-h period of breathing a hypoxic gas mixture (F(i)O(2) ~ 0.15). The CON group breathed a normoxic gas mixture (F(i)O(2) ~ 0.21) for the same duration (2 h). Blood samples were taken just before, after 60 min, and immediately after the 2-h exposure period. Thereafter, samples were taken at 3, 5, 8, 24, 32, and 48 h after the exposure. During the breathing interventions, subjects remained in supine position. There were significant increases in absolute [EPO] within groups at 8 and 32 h in the CON and at 32 h only in the IHH group. No significant differences in absolute [EPO] were observed between groups following the intervention. Relative (∆[EPO]) levels were significantly lower in the IHH than in the CON group, 5 and 8 h following exposure. The tested protocol of consecutive hyperoxic-hypoxic gas mixture breathing did not induce [EPO] synthesis stimulation. Moreover, the transient attenuation in ∆[EPO] in the IHH group was most likely due to a hyperoxic suppression. Hence, our findings provide further evidence against the "normobaric O(2) paradox" theory.
7.	Debevec, Tadej, et al. (author) Exercise Training during Normobaric Hypoxic Confinement Does Not Alter Hormonal Appetite Regulation 2014 In: PLOS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 9:6, s. e98874- Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Background: Both exposure to hypoxia and exercise training have the potential to modulate appetite and induce beneficial metabolic adaptations. The purpose of this study was to determine whether daily moderate exercise training performed during a 10-day exposure to normobaric hypoxia alters hormonal appetite regulation and augments metabolic health. Methods: Fourteen healthy, male participants underwent a 10-day hypoxic confinement at,4000 m simulated altitude (FIO2 = 0.139 +/- 0.003%) either combined with daily moderate intensity exercise (Exercise group; N = 8, Age = 25.8 +/- 2.4 yrs, BMI = 22.9 +/- 1.2 kg.m(-2)) or without any exercise (Sedentary group; N = 6 Age = 24.8 +/- 3.1 yrs, BMI = 22.3 +/- 2.5 kg.m(-2)). A meal tolerance test was performed before (Pre) and after the confinement (Post) to quantify fasting and postprandial concentrations of selected appetite-related hormones and metabolic risk markers. C-13-Glucose was dissolved in the test meal and (CO2)-C-13 determined in breath samples. Perceived appetite ratings were obtained throughout the meal tolerance tests. Results: While body mass decreased in both groups (-1.4 kg; p = 0.01) following the confinement, whole body fat mass was only reduced in the Exercise group (-1.5 kg; p = 0.01). At Post, postprandial serum insulin was reduced in the Sedentary group (-49%; p = 0.01) and postprandial plasma glucose in the Exercise group (-19%; p = 0.03). Fasting serum total cholesterol levels were reduced (-12%; p = 0.01) at Post in the Exercise group only, secondary to low-density lipoprotein cholesterol reduction (-16%; p = 0.01). No differences between groups or testing periods were noted in fasting and/or postprandial concentrations of total ghrelin, peptide YY, and glucagon-like peptide-1, leptin, adiponectin, expired (CO2)-C-13 as well as perceived appetite ratings (p>0.05). Conclusion: These findings suggest that performing daily moderate intensity exercise training during continuous hypoxic exposure does not alter hormonal appetite regulation but can improve the lipid profile in healthy young males.
8.	Debevec, Tadej, et al. (author) FemHab : The effects of bed rest and hypoxia on oxidative stress in healthy women 2016 In: Journal of applied physiology. - : American Chemical Society (ACS). - 8750-7587 .- 1522-1601. ; 120:8, s. 930-938 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Independently, both inactivity and hypoxia augment oxidative stress. This study, part of the FemHab project, investigated the combined effects of bed rest-induced unloading and hypoxic exposure on oxidative stress and antioxidant status. Healthy, eumenorrheic women were randomly assigned to the following three 10-day experimental interventions: normoxic bed rest (NBR; n = 11; PIO2 = 133 mmHg), normobaric hypoxic bed rest (HBR; n = 12; PIO2 = 90 mmHg), and ambulatory hypoxic confinement (HAMB; n = 8: PIO2 = 90 mmHg). Plasma samples, obtained before (Pre), during (D2, D6), immediately after (Post) and 24 h after (Post + 1) each intervention, were analyzed for oxidative stress markers [advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitrotyrosine], antioxidant status [ superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and uric acid (UA)], NO metabolism end-products (NOx), and nitrites. Compared with baseline, AOPP increased in NBR and HBR on D2 (+ 14%; + 12%; P < 0.05), D6 (+ 19%; + 15%; P < 0.05), and Post (+ 22%; + 21%; P < 0.05), respectively. MDA increased at Post + 1 in NBR (+ 116%; P < 0.01) and D2 in HBR (+114%; P < 0.01) and HAMB (+ 95%; P < 0.05). Nitrotyrosine decreased (-45%; P < 0.05) and nitrites increased (+46%; P < 0.05) at Post + 1 in HAMB only. Whereas SOD was higher at D6 (+ 82%) and Post + 1 (+ 67%) in HAMB only, the catalase activity increased on D6 (128%) and Post (146%) in HBR and HAMB, respectively (P < 0.05). GPX was only reduced on D6 (- 20%; P < 0.01) and Post (- 18%; P < 0.05) in HBR. No differences were observed in FRAP and NOx. UA was higher at Post in HBR compared with HAMB (P < 0.05). These data indicate that exposure to combined inactivity and hypoxia impairs prooxidant/antioxidant balance in healthy women. Moreover, habitual activity levels, as opposed to inactivity, seem to blunt hypoxia-related oxidative stress via antioxidant system upregulation.
9.	Debevec, Tadej, et al. (author) Separate and combined effects of 21-day bed rest and hypoxic confinement on body composition 2014 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 114:11, s. 2411-2425 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract This study tested the hypothesis that hypoxia exacerbates reductions in body mass observed during unloading. To discern the separate and combined effects of simulated microgravity and hypoxia, 11 healthy males underwent three 21-day campaigns in a counterbalanced fashion: (1) normoxic bed rest (NBR; FiO2 = 0.209; PiO2 = 133.1 +/- A 0.3); (2) hypoxic ambulatory confinement (HAMB; FiO2 = 0.141 +/- A 0.004; PiO2 = 90.0 +/- A 0.4; similar to 4,000 m); and (3) hypoxic bed rest (HBR; FiO2 = 0.141 +/- A 0.004; PiO2 = 90.0 +/- A 0.4). The same dietary menu was applied in all campaigns. Targeted energy intakes were estimated individually using the Harris-Benedict equation taking into account whether the subjects were bedridden or ambulatory. Body mass and water balance were assessed throughout the campaigns. Whole body and regional body composition was determined before and after the campaigns using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Before and during the campaigns, indirect calorimetry and visual analogue scores were employed to assess the resting energy expenditure (REE) and perceived appetite sensations, respectively. Energy intakes were lower than targeted in all campaigns (NBR: -5 %; HAMB: -14 %; HBR: -6 %; P < 0.01). Body mass significantly decreased following all campaigns (NBR: -3 %; HAMB: -4 %; HBR: -5 %; P < 0.01). While fat mass was not significantly altered, the whole body fat free mass was reduced (NBR: -4 %; HAMB: -5 %; HBR: -5 %; P < 0.01), secondary to lower limb fat-free mass reduction. Water balance was comparable between the campaigns. No changes were observed in REE and perceived appetite. Exposure to simulated altitude of similar to 4,000 m does not seem to worsen the whole body mass and fat-free mass reductions or alter resting energy expenditure and appetite during a 21-day simulated microgravity.
10.	Debevec, Tadej, et al. (author) Whole body and regional body composition changes following 10-day hypoxic confinement and unloading-inactivity 2014 In: Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism. - : Canadian Science Publishing. - 1715-5312 .- 1715-5320. ; 39:3, s. 386-395 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Future planetary habitats will expose inhabitants to both reduced gravity and hypoxia. This study investigated the effects of short-term unloading and normobaric hypoxia on whole body and regional body composition (BC). Eleven healthy, recreationally active, male participants with a mean (SD) age of 24 (2) years and body mass index of 22.4 (3.2) kg.m(-2) completed the following 3 10-day campaigns in a randomised, cross-over designed protocol: (i) hypoxic ambulatory confinement (HAMB; FIO2 = 0.147 (0.008); PIO2 = 93.8 (0.9) mm Hg), (ii) hypoxic bed rest (HBR; FIO2 = 0.147 (0.008); PIO2 = 93.8 (0.9) mm Hg), and (iii) normoxic bed rest (NBR; FIO2 = 0.209; PIO2 = 133.5 (0.7) mmHg). Nutritional requirements were individually precalculated and the actual intake was monitored throughout the study protocol. Body mass, whole body, and regional BC were assessed before and after the campaigns using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The calculated daily targeted energy intake values were 2071 (170) kcal for HBR and NBR and 2417 (200) kcal for HAMB. In both HBR and NBR campaigns the actual energy intake was within the targeted level, whereas in the HAMB the intake was lower than targeted (-8%, p < 0.05). Body mass significantly decreased in all 3 campaigns (-2.1%, -2.8%, and -2.0% for HAMB, HBR, and NBR, respectively; p < 0.05), secondary to a significant decrease in lean mass (-3.8%, -3.8%, -4.3% for HAMB, HBR, and NBR, respectively; p < 0.05) along with a slight, albeit not significant, increase in fat mass. The same trend was observed in the regional BC regardless of the region and the campaign. These results demonstrate that, hypoxia per se, does not seem to alter whole body and regional BC during short-term bed rest.
11.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Blood pressure regulation V : in vivo mechanical properties of precapillary vessels as affected by long-term pressure loading and unloading 2014 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 114:3, s. 499-509 Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract Recent studies are reviewed, concerning the in vivo wall stiffness of arteries and arterioles in healthy humans, and how these properties adapt to iterative increments or sustained reductions in local intravascular pressure. A novel technique was used, by which arterial and arteriolar stiffness were determined as changes in arterial diameter and flow, respectively, during graded increments in distending pressure in the blood vessels of an arm or a leg. Pressure-induced increases in diameter and flow were smaller in the lower leg than in the arm, indicating greater stiffness in the arteries/arterioles of the leg. A 5-wk period of intermittent intravascular pressure elevations in one arm reduced pressure distension and pressure-induced flow in the brachial artery by about 50%. Conversely, prolonged reduction of arterial/arteriolar pressure in the lower body by 5 wks of sustained horizontal bedrest, induced three-fold increases of the pressure-distension and pressure-flow responses in a tibial artery. Thus, the wall stiffness of arteries and arterioles are plastic properties that readily adapt to changes in the prevailing local intravascular pressure. The discussion concerns mechanisms underlying changes in local arterial/arteriolar stiffness as well as whether stiffness is altered by changes in myogenic tone and/or wall structure. As regards implications, regulation of local arterial/arteriolar stiffness may facilitate control of arterial pressure in erect posture and conditions of exaggerated intravascular pressure gradients. That increased intravascular pressure leads to increased arteriolar wall stiffness also supports the notion that local pressure loading may constitute a prime mover in the development of vascular changes in hypertension.
12.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Effects of local arteriosclerosis on carotid baroreflex sensitivity and on heart rate and arterial pressure variability in humans 2006 In: Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging. - 1475-0961 .- 1475-097X. ; 26:1, s. 9-14 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The study examined whether the alterations in heart rate variability (HRV) and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) observed in patients with coronary artery disease can also be discerned in otherwise healthy subjects with mild-to-moderate arteriosclerosis in the carotid artery bifurcation. Based on the results of carotid duplex ultrasonography, subjects were designated as either having no arteriosclerotic lesions (n = 18), unilateral (n = 19) or bilateral lesions (n = 18) in the bifurcation. Electrocardiograms were recorded and simultaneous and continuous records of arterial pressure were obtained. Resting HRV was determined by calculating the spectral power density in three frequency bands: 0-0.05 Hz [very low frequency (VLF) band], 0.05-0.15 [low frequency (LF) band] and 0.15-2 Hz (high frequency band), whereas the arterial pressure variability (APV) was determined from spectral power density of the VLF and LF bands. Carotid BRS was evaluated by measuring R-R intervals during application of pulse-synchronous graded pressures (40 to -65 mmHg) in a neck-chamber device. Analysis of variance revealed no effect of mild-to-moderate carotid arteriosclerosis on the spectral components of HRV and APV or on BRS. It thus appears that mild-to-moderate asymptomatic carotid arteriosclerosis does not affect carotid BRS, APV or HRV at rest.
13.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Effects of vision on energy expenditure and kinematics during level walking 2022 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Nature. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract PURPOSE: We have previously observed substantially higher oxygen uptake in soldiers walking on terrain at night than when performing the same walk in bright daylight. The aims of the present study were to investigate the influence of vision on mechanical efficiency during slow, horizontal, constant-speed walking, and to determine whether any vision influence is modified by load carriage.METHODS: Each subject (n = 15) walked (3.3 km/h) for 10 min on a treadmill in four different conditions: (1) full vision, no carried load, (2) no vision, no carried load, (3) full vision with a 25.5-kg rucksack, (4) no vision with a 25.5-kg rucksack.RESULTS: Oxygen uptake was 0.94 ± 0.12 l/min in condition (1), 1.15 ± 0.20 l/min in (2), 1.15 ± 0.12 l/min in (3) and 1.35 ± 0.19 l/min in (4). Thus, lack of vision increased oxygen uptake by about 19%. Analyses of movement pattern, by use of optical markers attached to the limbs and torso, revealed considerably shorter step length (12 and 10%) in the no vision (2 and 4) than full vision conditions (1 and 3). No vision conditions (2 and 4) increased step width by 6 and 6%, and increased vertical foot clearance by 20 and 16% compared to full vision conditions (1 and 3).CONCLUSION: The results suggest that vision has a marked influence on mechanical efficiency even during entrained, repetitive movements performed on an obstacle-free horizontal surface under highly predictable conditions.
14.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Local Intravascular Pressure Habituation in Relation to G-Induced Arm Pain 2012 In: Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine. - : Aerospace Medical Association. - 0095-6562 .- 1943-4448. ; 83:7, s. 667-672 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract EIKEN O, MEKJAVIC IB, KOLEGARD R. Local intravascular pressure habituation in relation to G-induced arm pain. Aviat Space Environ Med 2012; 83:667-72. Background: During high +G(z) loads, pilots may experience arm pain. It is commonly assumed that such pain is caused by distension of blood vessels and that vascular distensibility adapts to the prevailing transmural pressure. The aim was to investigate whether vascular pressure habituation (PH) is as efficient in alleviating G-induced arm pain as using counterpressure/support garments. Methods: In Series I, 7 subjects underwent a 5-wk PH regimen, consisting of 15 40-min sessions, during which intravascular pressures in one arm were elevated by 65-105 mmHg. Before and after PH, arm pain was determined during incremental +G(z)-exposures in a centrifuge. In Series II, the effect on G-induced arm pain of wearing protective garments around the lower part of the upper arm was investigated in 10 subjects in 4 conditions: 1) counterpressure; 2) rigid support; 3) sham support; and 4) no support (control). Pain was rated using a 10-point graded scale. Results: PH reduced arm pain at 7.5 G from [median (range)] 4 (2-9) to 2 (0-5) in the pressure-habituated arm. The sham support did not affect pain compared to in the control condition (5.2; 3.0-10.0), whereas pain was reduced by both the rigid support (3.7; 1.0-8.0) and the counterpressure (2.5; 0.0-5.5). PH was as efficient in alleviating pain as the counterpressure and more efficient than the rigid support. Discussion: The results support the notion that G-induced arm pain is caused by vascular overdistension. Repeated moderate elevations of local intravascular pressure reduce G-induced arm pain, presumably because such PH reduces vascular distensibility.
15.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Lunar habitat simulation 2013 Conference paper (other academic/artistic)
16.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Motion sickness decreases arterial pressure and therefore acceleration tolerance 2005 In: Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine. - 0095-6562 .- 1943-4448. ; 76:6, s. 541-546 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract BACKGROUND: Motion sickness is a common aeromedical problem that may occur in pilots exposed to increased gravitoinertial load in the head-to-foot direction (+Gz). Since motion sickness may affect autonomic nervous functions including cardiovascular control, it was hypothesized that it might interfere with cardiovascular responses to high +Gz, thereby decreasing G tolerance. METHODS: G tolerance and cardiovascular responses to increased G load were studied in nine subjects in a centrifuge environment under two conditions. In the motion sickness condition, the subject was exposed to a motion sickness provocation (MSP) comprising repeated rapid changes in G load in combination with a regimen of head movements. In the control condition the subject was exposed to similar cumulative G-time stress, but without the MSP. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was measured. An index of peripheral vascular resistance was achieved by measuring the difference in skin temperature between the forearm and fingertip (deltaT(forearm-fingertip)). RESULTS: MSP decreased gradual-onset rate G tolerance from 5.1 +/- 1.0 G (mean +/- SD) to 4.6 +/- 0.9 G. There was no change in gradual-onset rate G tolerance in the control condition. Rapid-onset rate G tolerance was lower in the motion sickness (2.9 +/- 0.5 G) than in the control (3.4 +/- 0.3 G) condition. MSP reduced MAP by 11 mmHg and deltaT(forearm-fingertip) by 4.2 +/- 4.1 degrees C. In the control condition MAP and deltaT(forearm-fingertip) were unaffected. CONCLUSIONS: Motion sickness may reduce the arterial pressure response to the extent that the capacity of an individual to withstand increased G loads in the head-to-foot direction is significantly diminished.
17.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) PlanHab : Normobaric hypoxia may exaggerate bedrest-induced reductions in peak oxygen uptake 2015 In: International Society for Gravitational Physiology. Conference paper (peer-reviewed)
18.	Eiken, Ola, et al. (author) Pressure-distension relationship in arteries and arterioles in response to 5 wk of horizontal bedrest 2008 In: American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology. - : American Physiological Society. - 0363-6135 .- 1522-1539. ; 295:3, s. H1296-H1302 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract We hypothesized that exposure to prolonged recumbency (bedrest), and thus reductions of intravascular pressure gradients, increases pressure distension in arteries/arterioles in the legs. Ten subjects underwent 5 wk of horizontal bedrest. Pressure distension was investigated in arteries and arterioles before and after the bedrest, with the subject seated or supine in a hyperbaric chamber with either one arm or a lower leg protruding through a hole in the chamber door. Increased pressure in the vessels of the arm/leg was accomplished by increasing chamber pressure. Vessel diameter and flow were measured in the brachial and posterior tibial arteries using Doppler ultrasonography. Electrical tissue impedance was measured in the test limb. Bedrest increased (P < 0.01) pressure distension threefold in the tibial artery (from 8 +/- 7% to 24 +/- 11%) and by a third (P < 0.05) in the brachial artery (from 15 +/- 9% to 20 +/- 10%). The pressure-induced increase in tibial artery flow was more pronounced (P < 0.01) after (50 +/- 39 ml/min) than before (13 +/- 23 ml/min) bedrest, whereas the brachial artery flow response was unaffected by bedrest. The pressure-induced decrease in tissue impedance in the leg was more pronounced (P < 0.01) after (16 +/- 7%) than before (10 +/- 6%) bedrest, whereas bedrest did not affect the impedance response in the arm. Thus, withdrawal of the hydrostatic pressure gradients that act along the blood vessels in erect posture markedly increases pressure distension in dependent arteries and arterioles.
19.	Gao, Chuansi, et al. (author) Cooling effect of a PCM vest on a thermal manikin and on humans exposed to heat 2007 In: Environmental Ergonomics. - 9789619054512 ; XII, s. 146-149 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)
20.	Gao, Chuansi, et al. (author) Integrating individual factors with climate service data to provide personalized thermal stress warnings and advice 2018 In: Physiology and Pharmacology of Temperature Regulation, 7th International meeting. - 9789619384848 ; , s. 80-80 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)
21.	Gennser, Mikael, et al. (author) Indices of Increased Decompression Stress Following Long-Term Bed Rest 2018 In: Frontiers in Physiology. - : Frontiers Media S.A.. - 1664-042X. ; 9 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Human extravehicular activity (EVA) is essential to space exploration and involves risk of decompression sickness (DCS). On Earth, the effect of microgravity on physiological systems is simulated in an experimental model where subjects are confined to a 6 degrees head-down bed rest (HDBR). This model was used to investigate various resting and exercise regimen on the formation of venous gas emboli (VGE), an indicator of decompression stress, post-hyperbaric exposure. Eight healthy male subjects participating in a bed rest regimen also took part in this study, which incorporated five different hyperbaric exposure (HE) interventions made before, during and after the HDBR. Interventions i-iv were all made with the subjects lying in 6 degrees HD position. They included (C1) resting control, (C2) knee-bend exercise immediately prior to HE, (T1) HE during the fifth week of the 35-day HDBR period, (C3) supine cycling exercise during the HE. In intervention (C4), subjects remained upright and ambulatory. The HE protocol followed the Royal Navy Table 11 with 100 min spent at 18 m (280 kPa), with decompression stops at 6 m for 5 min, and at 3 m for 15 min. Post-HE, regular precordial Doppler audio measurements were made to evaluate any VGE produced post-dive. VGE were graded according to the Kisman Masurel scale. The number of bubbles produced was low in comparison to previous studies using this profile [Kisman integrated severity score (KISS) ranging from 0-1], and may be because subjects were young, and lay supine during both the HE and the 2 h measurement period post-HE for interventions i-iv. However, the HE during the end of HDBR produced significantly higher maximum bubble grades and KISS score than the supine control conditions (p < 0.01). In contrast to the protective effect of pre-dive exercise on bubble production, a prolonged period of bed rest prior to a HE appears to promote the formation of post-decompression VGE. This is in contrast to the absence of DCS observed during EVA. Whether this is due to a difference between hypo- and hyperbaric decompression stress, or that the HDBR model is a not a good model for decompression sensitivity during microgravity conditions will have to be elucidated in future studies.
22.	Golja, Petra, et al. (author) Core temperature circdian rhythm during 35 days of horizontal bed rest 2002 In: Journal of gravitational physiology : a journal of the International Society for Gravitational Physiology. - 1077-9248. ; 9:1, s. P187-8 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The present study evaluated whether the previously reported alterations in core temperature circadian rhythm associated with bed rest might be attributable to increased heat loss from the skin. Infra-red thermograms were obtained at weekly intervals during 5 weeks of bed rest and after 4 weeks of active recovery. Tympanic temperature (Tty) was measured at hourly intervals from 0800 to 2300 hrs on similar occasions during bed rest. There were no significant changes in mean tympanic temperature or amplitude of Tty circadian rhythm during the 5 week bed rest period. Skin temperature decreased progressively during bed rest (P<0.005), with distal regions being the most affected.
23.	Grönkvist, Mikael, et al. (author) Heat Strain with Two Different Ventilation Vests During a Simulated 3-Hour Helicopter Desert Mission 2021 In: Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance. - : Aerospace Medical Association. - 2375-6314 .- 2375-6322. ; 92:4, s. 248-256 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract BACKGROUND: The study investigated the heat strain of personnel operating in the rear cabin of a helicopter during desert-climate missions, and to what extent the strain can be mitigated by use of battery-driven ventilation vests.METHODS: Eight men undertook 3-h simulated flight missions in desert conditions (45 degrees C, 10% humidity, solar radiation). Each subject participated in three conditions wearing helicopter flight equipment, including body armor, and either: a ventilation vest with a 3-dimensional mesh (Vent-1), a ventilation vest with a foam sheet incorporating channels to direct the air flow (Vent-2), or a T-shirt (NoVent); each mission comprised a 10-min walk, followed by sitting for 30 min, kneeling on a vibration platform for 2 h, and finally 30 min of sitting. Core temperature, heart rate, skin temperatures and heat flux, oxygen uptake, sweating rate, and subjective ratings were recorded. Evaporative capacity and thermal resistance of the garments were determined using a thermal manikin.RESULTS: All subjects completed the NoVent and Vent-1 conditions, whereas in the Vent-2 condition, one subject finished prematurely due to heat exhaustion. The increase in core temperature was significantly (P <= 0.01) greater in Novent (0.93 degrees C) and Vent-2 (0.88 degrees C) than in Vent-1 (0.61 degrees C). Evaporative capacity was significantly higher for Vent-1 (7.8 g . min(-1)) than for NoVent (4.1 g . min(-1)) and Vent-2 (4.4 g . min(-1)).DISCUSSION: Helicopter personnel may be at risk of heat exhaustion during desert missions. The risk can be reduced by use of a ventilation vest. However, the cooling efficacy of ventilation vests differs substantially depending on their design and ventilation concept.
24.	Kacin, Alan, et al. (author) Human temperature regulation during cycling with moderate leg ischaemia 2005 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 95:2-3, s. 213-220 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The effect of graded ischaemia in the legs on the regulation of body temperature during steady-state exercise was investigated in seven healthy males. It was hypothesised that graded ischaemia in the working muscles increases heat storage within the muscles, which in turn potentiates sweat secretion during exercise. Blood perfusion in the working muscles was reduced by applying a supra-atmospheric pressure (+6.6 kPa) around the legs, which reduced maximal working capacity by 29%. Each subject conducted three separate test trials comprising 30 min of steady-state cycling in a supine position. Exercise with unrestricted blood flow (Control trial) was compared to ischaemic exercise conducted at an identical relative work rate (Relative trial), as well as at an identical absolute work rate (Absolute trial); the latter corresponding to a 20% increase in relative workload. The average (SD) increases in both the rectal and oesophageal temperatures during steady-state cycling was 0.3 (0.2) degrees C and did not significantly differ between the three trials. The increase in muscle temperature was similar in the Control (2.7 (0.3) degrees C) and Absolute (2.4 (0.7) degrees C) trials, but was substantially lower (P < 0.01) in the Relative trial (1.4 (0.8) degrees C). Ischaemia potentiated (P < 0.01) sweating on the forehead in the Absolute trial (24.2 (7.3) g m(-2) min(-1)) compared to the Control trial (13.4 (6.2) g m(-2) min(-1)), concomitant with an attenuated (P < 0.05) vasodilatation in the skin during exercise. It is concluded that graded ischaemia in working muscles potentiates the exercise sweating response and attenuates vasodilatation in the skin initiated by increased core temperature, effects which may be attributed to an augmented muscle metaboreflex.
25.	Kacin, Alan, et al. (author) Influence of active recovery following prolonged bed rest on static exercise pressor response 2002 In: Journal of gravitational physiology : a journal of the International Society for Gravitational Physiology. - 1077-9248. ; 501, s. 197-198 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The present study investigated the effect of active recovery, following 35 days of horizontal bed rest, on the magnitude and time course of the pressor and heart rate responses to sustained 90 minute submaximal isometric contraction of unilateral knee extensor muscles. Ten healthy male subjects were tested immediately post bed rest (Post BR) and again after 4 weeks of active recovery (Recovery). In both trials subjects sustained an absolute force equal to 30% of Post BR maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Beat-to-beat heart rate (HR) and mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) were monitored continuously during sustained contraction using the volume-clamp technique. Despite a 24% increase in MVC, there were no significant differences in the magnitudes of HR and MAP responses between Post BR and Recovery trials, suggesting a bed rest-induced attenuation of the static exercise pressor response.
26.	Kacin, Alan, et al. (author) The influence of acute and 23 days of intermittent hypoxic exposures on the exercise-induced forehead sweating response 2007 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 99:5, s. 557-566 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The effect of acute and 23 days of intermittent exposures to normobaric hypoxia on the forehead sweating response during steady-state exercise was investigated. Eight endurance athletes slept in a normobaric hypoxic room for a minimum of 8 h per day at a simulated altitude equivalent to 2,700 m for 23 days (sleep high-train low regimen). Peak oxygen uptake (VO2(peak)) and peak work rate (WR(peak)) were determined under normoxic (20.9%O(2)) and hypoxic (13.5%O(2)) conditions prior to (pre-IHE), and immediately after (post-IHE) the intermittent hypoxic exposures (IHE). Also, each subject performed three 30-min cycle-ergometry bouts: (1) normoxic exercise at 50% WR(peak) attained in normoxia (control trial; CT); (2) hypoxic exercise at 50% WR(peak) attained in hypoxia (hypoxic relative trial; HRT) and (3) hypoxic exercise at the same absolute work rate as in CT (hypoxic absolute trial; HAT). Exposure to hypoxia induced a 33 and 37% decrease (P < 0.001) in (VO2(peak)) pre-IHE and post-IHE, respectively. Despite similar relative oxygen uptake during HAT pre-IHE and post-IHE, the ratings of perceived whole-body exertion decreased substantially (P < 0.05) post-IHE. Pre-IHE the sweat secretion on the forehead (m(sw)f) was greater (P < 0.01) in the HAT (2.60 (0.80) mg cm(-2) min(-1)) compared to the other two trials (CT = 1.87 (1.09) mg cm(-2) min(-1); HRT = 1.57 (0.82) mg cm(-2) min(-1)) despite a similar exercise-induced elevation in body temperatures, resulting in an augmented (P < 0.01) gain of the sweating response (m(sw)f/Delta T(re)). The augmented (m(sw)f) and m(sw)f/Delta T(re) during the HAT were no longer evident post-IHE. Thus, it appears that exercise sweating on the forehead is potentiated by acute exposure to hypoxia, an effect which can be abolished by 23 days of intermittent hypoxic exposures.
27.	Kacin, Alan, et al. (author) The influence of fatigue-induced increase in relative work rate on temperature regulation during exercise 2008 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 103:1, s. 71-77 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Heat-loss responses during steady-load exercise are affected by an increase in relative work rate induced by muscle ischaemia or hypoxaemia. The present study investigated whether progressive increases in perception of exertion and relative oxygen uptake %VO2peak which occur during prolonged steady-load exercise as a result of progressively increased peripheral fatigue, might also affect the regulation of heat loss responses and hence the exercise-induced increase in mean body temperature. Ten male subjects first performed a ramp-test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer to evaluate their initial peak oxygen uptake (Control VO2peak). On a separate day, 120 min of cycling at constant power output corresponding to 60% of Control VO2peak was performed in thermoneutral environment (Ta = 23 degrees C, RH = 50%, wind speed = 5 m s(-1)). This was immediately followed by another maximal performance test (Fatigue VO2peak). During prolonged exercise, median (range) rating of perceived exertion for whole-body (RPEwb) increased (P < 0.01) from initial 3.5 (1-5) to 5.5 (5-9) at the end of exercise. Fatigue VO2peak and peak power output were 9 (5) and 10 (5)% lower (P < 0.01) when compared to control values. At the onset of exercise, heat production, mechanical efficiency, heat loss and mean body temperature increased towards asymptotic values, thereafter remained constant throughout the 120 min exercise, despite the concomitant progressive increase in relative work rate, as reflected in increased RPEwb and relative oxygen uptake. It is thus concluded that the increase in relative work rate induced predominantly by peripheral muscle fatigue affects neither the level of increase in mean body temperature nor the regulation of heat loss responses during prolonged steady-load exercise.
28.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Carbon monoxide exposure during exercise performance : muscle and cerebral oxygenation 2012 In: Acta Physiologica. - : Wiley. - 1748-1708 .- 1748-1716. ; 204:4, s. 544-554 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Aim: To investigate the effect of carbon monoxide (CO) in the inspired air as anticipated during peak hours of traffic in polluted megalopolises on cerebral, respiratory and leg muscle oxygenation during a constant-power test (CPT). In addition, since O2 breathing is used to hasten elimination of CO from the blood, we examined the effect of breathing O2 following exposure to CO on cerebral and muscle oxygenation during a subsequent exercise test under CO conditions. Methods: Nine men participated in three trials: (i) 3-h air exposure followed by a control CPT, (ii) 1-h air and 2-h CO (18.9 ppm) exposure succeeded by a CPT under CO conditions (CPTCO A), and (iii) 2-h CO and 1-h 100% normobaric O2 exposure followed by a CPT under CO conditions (CPTCO B). All exercise tests were performed at 85% of peak power output to exhaustion. Oxygenated (D[O2Hb]), deoxygenated (D[HHb]) and total (D[tHb]) haemoglobin in cerebral, intercostal and vastus lateralis muscles were monitored with near-infrared spectroscopy throughout the CPTs. Results: Performance time did not vary between trials. However, the vastus lateralis and intercostal D[O2Hb] and D[tHb] were lower in CPTCO A than in CPT. During the CPTCO B, the intercostal D[O2Hb] and D[tHb] were higher than in the CPTCO A. There were no differences in cerebral oxygenation between the trials. Conclusion: Inspiration of 18.9 ppm CO decreases oxygenation in the vastus lateralis and serratus anterior muscles, but does not affect performance. Breathing normobaric O2 moderates the CO-induced reductions in muscle oxygenation, mainly in the intercostals, but does not affect endurance.
29.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Effects of two short-term, intermittent hypoxic training protocols on the finger temperature response to local cold stress 2015 In: High Altitude Medicine & Biology. - : Mary Ann Liebert Inc. - 1527-0297 .- 1557-8682. ; 16:3, s. 251-260 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Keramidas, Michail E., Stylianos N. Kounalakis, Ola Eiken, and Igor B. Mekjavic. Effects of two short-Term, intermittent hypoxic training protocols on the finger temperature response to local cold stress. High Alt Med Biol 16:251-260, 2015.-The study examined the effects of two short-Term, intermittent hypoxic training protocols, namely exercising in hypoxia and living in normoxia (LL-TH; n=8), and exercising in normoxia preceded by a series of brief intermittent hypoxic exposures at rest (IHE+NOR; n=8), on the finger temperature response during a sea-level local cold test. In addition, a normoxic group was assigned as a control group (NOR; n=8). All groups trained on a cycle-ergometer 1h/day, 5 days/week for 4 weeks at 50% of peak power output. Pre, post, and 11 days after the last training session, subjects immersed their right hand for 30min in 8°C water. In the NOR group, the average finger temperature was higher in the post (+2.1°C) and 11-day after (+2.6°C) tests than in the pre-Test (p≤0.001). Conversely, the fingers were significantly colder immediately after both hypoxic protocols (LL-TH:-1.1°C, IHE+NOR:-1.8°C; p=0.01). The temperature responses returned to the pre-Training level 11 days after the hypoxic interventions. Ergo, present findings suggest that short-Term intermittent hypoxic training impairs sea-level local cold tolerance; yet, the hypoxic-induced adverse responses seem to be reversible within a period of 11 days.
30.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Forearm-finger skin temperature gradient as an index of cutaneous perfusion during steady-state exercise 2013 In: Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging. - : Wiley-Blackwell. - 1475-0961 .- 1475-097X. ; 33:5, s. 400-404 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The purpose of this study was to examine whether the forearm-finger skin temperature gradient (Tforearm-finger), an index of vasomotor tone during resting conditions, can also be used during steady-state exercise. Twelve healthy men performed three cycling trials at an intensity of similar to 60% of their maximal oxygen uptake for 75min separated by at least 48h. During exercise, forearm skin blood flow (BFF) was measured with a laser-Doppler flowmeter, and finger skin blood flow (PPG) was recorded from the left index fingertip using a pulse plethysmogram. Tforearm-finger of the left arm was calculated from the values derived by two thermistors placed on the radial side of the forearm and on the tip of the middle finger. During exercise, PPG and BFF increased (P<0.001), and Tforearm-finger decreased (P<0.001) from their resting values, indicating a peripheral vasodilatation. There was a significant correlation between Tforearm-finger and both PPG (r=-0.68; P<0.001) and BFF (r=-0.50; P<0.001). It is concluded that Tforearm-finger is a valid qualitative index of cutaneous vasomotor tone during steady-state exercise.
31.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Hand temperature responses to local cooling after a 10-day confinement to normobaric hypoxia with and without exercise 2015 In: Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 0905-7188 .- 1600-0838. ; 25:5, s. 650-660 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The study examined the effects of a 10-day normobaric hypoxic confinement (FiO2: 0.14), with (HT; n = 8) or without (HA; n = 6) exercise, on the hand-temperature responses during and after local cold stress. Before and after the confinement, subjects immersed their right hand for 30 min in 8°C water (CWI), followed by a 15-min spontaneous rewarming (RW), while breathing either room air (AIR), or a hypoxic gas mixture (HYPO). The hand-temperature responses were monitored with thermocouples and infrared-thermography. The confinement did not influence the hand-temperature responses of the HA group during the AIR and HYPO CWI and the HYPO RW phases; but it impaired the AIR RW response (-1.3°C; P = 0.05). After the confinement, the hand-temperature responses were unaltered in the HT group throughout the AIR trial. However, the average hand-temperature was increased during the HYPO CWI (+0.5°C; P ≤ 0.05) and RW (+2.4°C; P ≤ 0.001) phases. Accordingly, present findings suggest that prolonged exposure to normobaric hypoxia per se does not alter the hand-temperature responses to local cooling; yet, it impairs the normoxic rewarming response. Conversely, the combined stimuli of continuous hypoxia and exercise enhance the finger cold-induced vasodilatation and hand-rewarming responses, specifically, under hypoxic conditions.
32.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Heterogeneous sensitivity of cerebral and muscle tissues to acute normobaric hyperoxia at rest 2012 In: Microvascular Research. - : Elsevier BV. - 0026-2862 .- 1095-9319. ; 84:2, s. 205-210 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The purpose was to investigate the effects of acute normobaric hyperoxia at rest on cerebral, respiratory and leg muscle oxygenation. Ten healthy men were studied twice in a single-blinded counterbalanced crossover study protocol. On one occasion they breathed air and on the other 100% normobaric O-2 for a 2-hour time period. Oxygenated (Delta[O(2)Hb]), deoxygenated (Delta[HHb]) and total (Delta[tHb]) hemoglobin in the cerebral frontal cortex, and in the intercostal and vastus lateralis muscles were simultaneously monitored with near-infrared spectroscopy. The hyperoxic stimulus promptly increased Delta[O(2)Hb] (similar to 2 mu M) and decreased Delta[HHb] (similar to 3.6 mu M) in the frontal cortex. These cerebral responses were directly and fully countered by resumption of normoxic air breathing. In contrast, Delta[HHb] significantly decreased due to the acute hyperoxic stimulus in both intercostal and vastus lateralis muscles. The temporal changes in muscle oxygenation were slower compared to those in the cerebral area; and they only partially recovered during the 15-min normoxic-recovery period. Acute supplementation of normobaric O-2 at rest influences cerebral, leg and respiratory muscle oxygenation of healthy individuals, but not in the same manner. Namely, the frontal cortex seems to be more sensitive to hyperoxia than are the skeletal muscle regions.
33.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Interactions of mild hypothermia and hypoxia on finger vasoreactivity to local cold stress 2019 In: American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology. - : AMER PHYSIOLOGICAL SOC. - 0363-6119 .- 1522-1490. ; 317:3, s. R418-R431 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract We examined the interactive effects of mild hypothermia and hypoxia on finger vasoreactivity to local cold stress. Eight male lowlanders performed, in a counterbalanced order, a normoxic and a hypoxic (partial pressure of oxygen: similar to 12 kPa) hand cold provocation (consisting of a 30-min immersion in 8 degrees C water), while immersed to the chest either in 21 degrees C [cold trials; 0.5 degrees C fall in rectal temperature (T-rec) from individual preimmersion values], or in 35.5 degrees C water, or while exposed to 27 degrees C air. The duration of the trials was kept constant in each breathing condition. Physiological (T-rec, skin temperature, cutaneous vascular conductance, oxygen uptake) and perceptual (thermal sensation and comfort, local pain, affective valence) reactions were monitored continually. Hypoxia accelerated the drop in T-rec by similar to 14 min (P = 0.06, d = 0.67). In the air-exposure trials, hypoxia did not alter finger perfusion during the local cooling. whereas it impaired the finger rewarming response following the cooling (P < 0.01). During the 35.5 degrees C immersion, the finger vasomotor tone was enhanced, especially in hypoxia (P = 0.01). Mild hypothermia aggravated finger vasoconstriction instigated by local cooling (P < 0.01), but the response did not differ between the two breathing conditions (P > 0.05). Hypoxia tended to attenuate the sensation of coldness (P = 0.10, r = 0.40) and thermal discomfort (P = 0.09, r = 0.46) in the immersed hand. Both in normoxia and hypoxia, the whole body thermal state dictates the cutaneous vasomotor reactivity to localized cold stimulus.
34.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Long-term intermittent hyperoxic exposures do not enhance erythropoiesis 2012 In: European Journal of Clinical Investigation. - : Wiley-Blackwell. - 0014-2972 .- 1365-2362. ; 42:3, s. 260-265 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Eur J Clin Invest 2011 ABSTRACT: Background Based on a report of a marked increase in the erythropoietin concentration ([EPO]) a few hours after the cessation of a single 2-h session of O(2) breathing, short periods of O(2) administration have been advocated as a therapy for anaemia. Accordingly, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate this theory by investigating the effect of 10 daily short-term exposures to normobaric O(2) over a 2-week period on the plasma [EPO] in healthy individuals. Material and methods Twenty men were assigned to either an experimental (NBO(2) ) or to a control (AIR) group. The NBO(2) group breathed 100% normobaric O(2) for 2 h every weekday over a 2-week period. The AIR group breathed air within the same time protocol. Blood samples were collected at the pre-, mid- and post-intervention periods to determine [EPO]. Results [EPO] of the NBO(2) group was significantly lower than that of the AIR group during the mid- and post-periods (P < 0·001). [EPO] of the NBO(2) group showed a slight, albeit statistically nonsignificant, decrease during the mid (∼ 11%)- and post (∼ 16%)-periods. Conclusions Daily short-term exposures to normobaric hyperoxia do not increase the [EPO] in healthy individuals. The increased O(2) tension suppresses [EPO]. Hence, administration of pure O(2) to enhance erythropoiesis is not warranted.
35.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) LunHab : interactive effects of a 10 day sustained exposure to hypoxia and bedrest on aerobic exercise capacity in male lowlanders 2017 In: Experimental Physiology. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 0958-0670 .- 1469-445X. ; 102:6, s. 694-710 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What are the distinct and interactive effects of a 10 day exposure to hypoxia and horizontal bedrest on the whole-body peak oxygen uptake and on the regional cerebral and skeletal muscle tissue oxygenation during upright cycle ergometry in male lowlanders? What is the main finding and its importance? A 10 day sustained exposure to hypoxia aggravates the bedrest-induced reduction in peak oxygen uptake during dynamic exercise engaging large muscle groups, but mitigates the skeletal muscle oxidative capacity impairment elicited by bedrest. The study examined the interactive effects of a 10 day exposure to hypoxia and bedrest on the whole-body peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2 peak ) during maximal exercise and on skeletal muscle and cerebral oxygenation during submaximal exercise. Nine males underwent three 10 day confinements, in a Latin-square order, as follows: (i) a normoxic bedrest [NBR; partial pressure of inspired O2 (PI,O2) = 134.2 ± 0.7 mmHg]; (ii) a hypoxic bedrest (HBR; PI,O2 = 102.9 ± 0.1 mmHg at day 1, 91.5 ± 1.2 mmHg at days 3-10); and (iii) a hypoxic ambulation (HAMB; PI,O2 as in HBR). Before, 1 (R+1) and 3 days (R+3) after each confinement, subjects performed exhaustive, incremental-load and moderate-intensity constant-load (CLTs) cycle-ergometry trials, while breathing either room air or a hypoxic gas mixture. During the CLTs, changes in the regional oxygenation of the cerebral frontal cortex and the vastus lateralis and intercostal muscles were monitored with near-infrared spectroscopy. At R+1, the confinement-related impairment in V̇O2 peak was greater after HBR than after NBR or HAMB, regardless of whether the trial was performed in room air or hypoxia (HBR, -16.2%; NBR, -8.3%; HAMB, -4.1%; P = 0.001). During the CLTs, bedrest aggravated the exercise-induced reduction in locomotor and respiratory muscle oxygenation (P ≤ 0.05); an effect that was less after HBR than after NBR (P ≤ 0.05). The hypoxic exercise-induced cerebral vasodilatory response was blunted by HBR, probably because of the marked hyperventilation-dependent hypocapnia, attendant to the sustained hypoxic stimulus. Hence, short-term exposure to hypoxia potentiates the reduction in V̇O2 peak , but it mitigates the impairment in skeletal muscle oxidative capacity induced by bedrest.
36.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Muscle and cerebral oxygenation during exercise performance after short-term respiratory work 2011 In: Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology. - : Elsevier BV. - 1569-9048 .- 1878-1519. ; 175:2, s. 247-254 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of 30-min voluntary hyperpnoea on cerebral, respiratory and leg muscle balance between 02 delivery and utilization during a subsequent constant-power test. Eight males performed a VO2max test, and two exercise tests at 85% of peak power output: (a) a control constant-power test (CPT), and (b) a constant-power test after a respiratory maneuver (CPTRM). Oxygenated (Delta[O(2)Hb]), deoxygenated (Delta[HHb]) and total (Delta[tHb]) hemoglobin in cerebral, intercostal and vastus lateralis were monitored with near-infrared spectroscopy. The performance time dropped similar to 15% in CPTRM (6:55 +/- 2:52 min) compared to CPT (8:03 +/- 2:33 min), but the difference was not statistically significant. The vastus lateral's and intercostal Delta[tHb] and Delta[HHb] were lower in CPTRM than in CPT (P <= 0.05). There were no differences in cerebral oxygenation between the trials. Thus, respiratory work prior to an exercise test influences the oxygenation during exercise in the leg and respiratory muscles, but not in the frontal cortex. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
37.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) PlanHab : Hypoxia exaggerates the bedrest-induced reduction in peak oxygen uptake during upright cycle-ergometry 2016 In: American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology. - : American Physiological Society. - 0363-6135 .- 1522-1539. Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The study examined the effects of hypoxia and horizontal bedrest, separately and in combination, on peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) during upright cycle-ergometry. Ten male lowlanders underwent three 21-day confinement periods, in a counterbalanced order: i) normoxic bedrest (NBR; PIO2 = 133.1 ± 0.3 mmHg), ii) hypoxic bedrest (HBR; PIO2 = 90.0 ± 0.4 mmHg), and iii) hypoxic ambulation (HAMB; PIO2 = 90.0 ± 0.4 mmHg). Before and after each confinement, subjects performed two incremental-load trials to exhaustion, while inspiring either room-air (AIR), or a hypoxic gas (HYPO; PIO2 = 90.0 ± 0.4 mmHg). Changes in regional oxygenation of the vastus lateralis muscle and the frontal cerebral cortex were monitored with near-infrared spectroscopy. Cardiac output (CO) was recorded using a bioimpedance method. The AIR VO2peak was decreased by both HBR (~13.5%; p ≤ 0.001) and NBR (~8.6%; p ≤ 0.001), with greater drop after HBR (p = 0.01). The HYPO VO2peak was also reduced by HBR (-9.7%; p ≤ 0.001) and NBR (-6.1%; p ≤ 0.001). Peak CO was lower after both bedrest interventions, and especially after HBR (HBR: ~13%, NBR: ~7%; p ≤ 0.05). Exercise-induced alterations in muscle and cerebral oxygenation were blunted in a similar manner after both bedrest confinements. No changes were observed in HAMB. Hence, the bedrest-induced decrease in VO2peak was exaggerated by hypoxia, most likely due to a reduction in convective O2 transport, as indicated by the lower peak values of CO.
38.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) PlanHab: Hypoxia counteracts the erythropoietin suppression, but seems to exaggerate the plasma volume reduction induced by 3 weeks of bed rest 2016 In: Physiological Reports. - : Wiley-Blackwell. - 2051-817X. ; 4:3 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The study examined the distinct and synergistic effects of hypoxia and bed rest on the erythropoietin (EPO) concentration and relative changes in plasma volume (PV). Eleven healthy male lowlanders underwent three 21‐day confinement periods, in a counterbalanced order: (1) normoxic bed rest (NBR; PIO2: 133.1 ± 0.3 mmHg); (2) hypoxic bed rest (HBR; PIO2: 90.0 ± 0.4 mmHg, ambient simulated altitude of ~4000 m); and (3) hypoxic ambulation (HAMB; PIO2: 90.0 ± 0.4 mmHg). Blood samples were collected before, during (days 2, 5, 14, and 21) and 2 days after each confinement to determine EPO concentration. Qualitative differences in PV changes were also estimated by changes in hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration along with concomitant changes in plasma renin concentration. NBR caused an initial reduction in EPO by ~39% (P = 0.04). By contrast, HBR enhanced EPO (P = 0.001), but the increase was less than that induced by HAMB (P < 0.01). All three confinements caused a significant reduction in PV (P < 0.05), with a substantially greater drop in HBR than in the other conditions (P < 0.001). Thus, present results suggest that hypoxia prevents the EPO suppression, whereas it seems to exaggerate the PV reduction induced by bed rest.
39.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Prevailing evidence contradicts the notion of a "normobaric oxygen paradox" 2012 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 112:12, s. 4177-4178 Journal article (peer-reviewed)
40.	Keramidas, Michail E., et al. (author) Severe hypoxia during incremental exercise to exhaustion provokes negative post-exercise affects 2016 In: Physiology and Behavior. - : Elsevier. - 0031-9384 .- 1873-507X. ; 156 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The post-exercise emotional response is mainly dependent on the intensity of the exercise performed; moderate exercise causes positive feelings, whereas maximal exercise may prompt negative affects. Acute hypoxia impairs peak O2 uptake (VO2peak), resulting in a shift to a lower absolute intensity at the point of exhaustion. Hence, the purpose of the study was to examine whether a severe hypoxic stimulus would influence the post-exercise affective state in healthy lowlanders performing an incremental exercise to exhaustion. Thirty-six male lowlanders performed, in a counter-balanced order and separated by a 48-h interval, two incremental exercise trials to exhaustion to determine their VO2peak, while they were breathing either room air (AIR; FiO2: 0.21), or a hypoxic gas mixture (HYPO; FiO2: 0.12). Before and immediately after each trial, subjects were requested to complete two questionnaires, based on how they felt at that particular moment: (i) the Profile of Mood States-Short Form, and (ii) the Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List. During the post-exercise phase, they also completed the Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory. VO2peak was significantly lower in the HYPO than the AIR trial (~15%; p<0.001). Still, after the HYPO trial, energy, calmness and motivation were markedly impaired, whereas tension, confusion, and perception of physical and general fatigue were exaggerated (p≤0.05). Accordingly, present findings suggest that an incremental exercise to exhaustion performed in severe hypoxia provokes negative post-exercise emotions, induces higher levels of perceived fatigue and decreases motivation; the affective responses coincide with the comparatively lower VO2peak than that achieved in normoxic conditions.
41.	Kounalakis, Stylianos N., et al. (author) A 10-day confinement to normobaric hypoxia impairs toe, but not finger temperature response during local cold stress 2017 In: Journal of Thermal Biology. - : Elsevier. - 0306-4565 .- 1879-0992. ; 64, s. 109-115 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The study examined the effects of a 10-day normobaric hypoxic confinement on the finger and toe temperature responses to local cooling. Eight male lowlanders underwent a normoxic (NC) and, in a separate occasion, a normobaric hypoxic confinement (HC; FO2: 0.154; simulated altitude ~3400 m). Before and after each confinement, subjects immersed for 30 min their right hand and, in a different session, their right foot in 8 °C water, while breathing either room air (AIR) or a hypoxic gas mixture (HYPO). Throughout the cold-water immersion tests, thermal responses were monitored with thermocouples on fingers and toes. Neither confinement influenced thermal responses in the fingers during the AIR or HYPO test. In the foot, by contrast, HC, but not NC, reduced the average toe temperature by ~1.5 °C (p=0.03), both during the AIR and HYPO test. We therefore conclude that a 10-day confinement to normobaric hypoxia per se augments cold-induced vasoconstriction in the toes, but not in the fingers. The mechanism underlying this dissimilarity remains to be established.
42.	Kounalakis, Stylianos N, et al. (author) Exercise temperature regulation following a 35-day horizontal bedrest. 2021 In: Experimental Physiology. - : Wiley. - 0958-0670 .- 1469-445X. ; 106:7, s. 1498-1507 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Does a 35-day horizontal bedrest impair thermoeffector responses during whole-body submaximal exercise performed in temperate conditions? What is the main finding and its importance? Cardiovascular and muscular deconditioning ensued from prolonged recumbency, seems to augment, at least to a degree, the exercise-induced increase in body core temperature, most likely due to an impairment in non-evaporative heat loss. The response is a function of the absolute exercise intensity imposed.ABSTRACT: We examined the effects of a 35-day horizontal bedrest on thermoregulation during whole-body exercise. Fifteen healthy men were randomly assigned to either a bedrest (BR; n = 10), or a control (CON; n = 5) group. Prior to bedrest, both groups performed a 40-min constant-load upright cycling at 30% of their peak workload (Wpeak ; PRE). One and two days after bedrest, the BR group performed, in a randomised counterbalanced order, two 40-min trials at 30% of: (i) the pre-bedrest Wpeak (i.e., at a fixed absolute intensity; POST-A), and (ii) the post-bedrest Wpeak (i.e., at a fixed relative intensity; POST-R). The CON group conducted only the POST-A trial, at the same time intervals. During the trials, rectal (Trec ) and skin temperatures, and the forehead sweating rate (SwR) were monitored. In the CON group, no differences were observed between the trials. Bedrest potentiated moderately the Trec elevation during the latter part of POST-A (∼0.10°C; P≤0.05), but not of POST-R (∼0.04°C; P = 0.11). In both post-bedrest trials, was attenuated by ∼1.5-2.0° C throughout (P<0.01), whereas the forehead SwR was not modulated. Trec and were similar in POST-A and POST-R; yet the forehead SwR was more dependent on the relative workload imposed (P = 0.04). Present findings therefore suggest that the cardiovascular and muscular deconditioning ensued from a 35-day bedrest may aggravate the exercise-induced increase in body core temperature when working at a given absolute intensity, most likely due to an impairment in non-evaporative heat loss. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
43.	Kuklane, Kalev, et al. (author) Measuring clothing insulation: analysis of human data based on manikin tests 2007 In: Environmental Ergonomics. - 9789619054512 ; XII, s. 434-437 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)
44.	Kuklane, Kalev, et al. (author) Physiological responses at 10 and 25 °C in wet and dry underwear in permeable and impermeable coveralls 2007 In: Environmental Ergonomics. - 9789619054512 ; XII, s. 169-172 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Abstract in Undetermined effect of evaporation/ condensation,protective clothing,
45.	Kölegard, Roger, et al. (author) Effects of physical fitness on relaxed G-tolerance and the exercise pressor response 2013 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 113:11, s. 2749-2759 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Fighter pilots are commonly recommended strength training as a means of improving the tolerance to withstand high gravitoinertial (G) loads. Previous studies on the effect of short-term strength-training regimens on G-endurance show equivocal results, with a majority of the studies suggesting improved G-endurance. The mechanisms underlying such improvement are unknown. Presumably, any change in G-tolerance induced by physical training habits should be manifest following long-term training. We also reasoned that during repeated straining maneuvers-as during certain G-endurance protocols-the relaxed G-tolerance and the exercise pressure response may play a significant role in maintaining adequate arterial pressure, and hence that different training modalities might alter G-endurance, by altering the exercise pressor response. Three groups of males were studied, long-term (>6 months) endurance-trained (E; n = 17), strength-trained (S; n = 16) and untrained (U; n = 17) individuals. The pressor response was studied during sustained (40 s) isometric knee extensions at 50 % of the maximal contraction level. Relaxed gradual onset-rate G-tolerance was determined. G-tolerance was similar in the E (4.6 +/- 0.5 G), S (4.9 +/- 0.8 G) and U (4.6 +/- 0.8 G) groups. The mean arterial pressure increase during isometric exercise was higher in the S (36 +/- 7 mmHg = mean +/- SD) and U (35 +/- 16 mmHg) groups than in the E group (28 +/- 8 mmHg). The results suggest that relaxed G-tolerance is unaffected by physical training habits, and that the training modality affects the magnitude of the exercise pressor response. However, it seems that the response is blunted by endurance training rather than enhanced by strength training.
46.	Kölegård, Roger, et al. (author) Increased distensibility in dependent veins following prolonged bedrest 2009 In: European Journal of Applied Physiology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-6319 .- 1439-6327. ; 106:4, s. 547-554 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Displacement of blood to the lower portion of the body that follows a postural transition from recumbent to erect is augmented by a prolonged period of recumbency (bedrest). Information is scarce as to what extent this augmented blood-volume shift to dependent veins is attributable to increased distensibility of the veins. Accordingly, we studied the effect of 5 weeks of horizontal bedrest on the pressure-distension relationship in limb veins. Elevation of venous distending pressure was induced by exposure of the body except the tested limb to supra-atmospheric pressure with the subject seated in a pressure chamber with one arm, or supine with a lower leg, protruding through a hole in the chamber door. Diameter changes in response to an increase of intravenous pressure (distensibility) from 60 to about 140 mmHg were measured in the brachial and posterior tibial veins using ultrasonographic techniques. Prior to bedrest, the distensibility was substantially less in the tibial than in the brachial vein. Bedrest increased (P < 0.01) pressure distension in the tibial vein by 86% from 7 +/- A 3% before to 13 +/- A 3% after bedrest. In the brachial vein, bedrest increased (P < 0.05) pressure distension by 36% from 14 +/- A 5% before to 19 +/- A 5% after bedrest. Thus, removal of the gravity-dependent pressure components that act along the blood vessels in erect posture increases the distensibility of dependent veins.
47.	McDonnell, Adam C., et al. (author) The Effect Of A Live-high Train-high Regimen On Emotional State 2015 In: Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. - : LIPPINCOTT WILLIAMS & WILKINS. - 0195-9131 .- 1530-0315. ; 47:5, s. 608-608 Journal article (other academic/artistic)
48.	McDonnell, Adam C, et al. (author) The influence of a sustained 10-day hypoxic bed rest on cartilage biomarkers and subchondral bone in females : The FemHab study. 2020 In: Physiological Reports. - : Wiley. - 2051-817X. ; 8:8 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract This study assessed the influence of a 10-day hypoxic bed rest on cartilage biomarkers and subchondral bone density across the patellofemoral joint (PFJ). Within clinical settings hypoxic tissue may arise in several types of disorders. Furthermore, a hypoxic environment is being considered for space flight habitats in the near future. Female participants (N = 12) participated in this study comprising three 10-day interventions: hypoxic ambulation (HAMB), normoxic bed rest (NBR), and hypoxic bed rest (HBR). Venous samples were collected prior to (day -2: Pre) and during the intervention (days 2 and 5), immediately before reambulation (D11) and 24 hr post intervention (R1). Blood samples were analyzed for: aggrecan, hyaluronan, Type IIA procollagen amino terminal propeptide (PIIANP), and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP). Total bone mineral density (BMD) in eight regions (2 mm × 10 mm) across the PFJ was determined. The three interventions (HAMB, HBR, and NBR) did not induce any significant changes in the cartilage biomarkers of hyaluronan or PIIANP. Aggrecan increased during the HAMB trial to 2.02 fold the Pre value. COMP decreased significantly in both NBR & HBR compared to HAMB on D5. There were significant differences in BMD measured across the PFJ from cortical patellar bone (735 to 800 mg/cm3 ) to femur trabecular (195 to 226 mg/cm3 ). However, there were no significant changes in BMD from Pre to Post bed rest. These results indicate that there were no significant detectable effects of inactivity/unloading on subchondral bone density. The biomarker of cartilage, COMP, decreased on D5, whereas the addition of hypoxia to bed rest had no effect, it appears that hypoxia in combination with ambulation counteracted this decrease.
49.	McDonnell, Adam C., et al. (author) The LunHab project : Muscle and bone alterations in male participants following a 10 day lunar habitat simulation. 2019 In: Experimental Physiology. - : Wiley. - 0958-0670 .- 1469-445X. ; 104:8, s. 1250-1261 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? It is well established that muscle and bone atrophy in conditions of inactivity or unloading, but there is little information regarding the effect of a hypoxic environment on the time course of these deconditioning physiological systems. What is the main finding and its importance? The main finding is that a horizontal 10 day bed rest in normoxia results in typical muscle atrophy, which is not aggravated by hypoxia. Changes in bone mineral content or in metabolism were not detected after either normoxic or hypoxic bed rest.ABSTRACT: Musculoskeletal atrophy constitutes a typical adaptation to inactivity and unloading of weightbearing bones. The reduced-gravity environment in future Moon and Mars habitats is likely to be hypobaric hypoxic, and there is an urgent need to understand the effect of hypoxia on the process of inactivity-induced musculoskeletal atrophy. This was the principal aim of the present study. Eleven males participated in three 10 day interventions: (i) hypoxic ambulatory confinement; (ii) hypoxic bed rest; and (iii) normoxic bed rest. Before and after the interventions, the muscle strength (isometric maximal voluntary contraction), mass (lean mass, by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), cross-sectional area and total bone mineral content (determined with peripheral quantitative computed tomography) of the participants were measured. Blood and urine samples were collected before and on the 1st, 4th and 10th day of the intervention and analysed for biomarkers of bone resorption and formation. There was a significant reduction in thigh and lower leg muscle mass and volume after both normoxic and hypoxic bed rests. Muscle strength loss was proportionately greater than the loss in muscle mass for both thigh and lower leg. There was no indication of bone loss. Furthermore, the biomarkers of resorption and formation were not affected by any of the interventions. There was no significant effect of hypoxia on the musculoskeletal variables. Short-term normoxic (10 day) bed rest resulted in muscular deconditioning, but not in the loss of bone mineral content or changes in bone metabolism. Hypoxia did not modify these results.
50.	Mekjavic, Igor B., et al. (author) Contribution of thermal and nonthermal factors to the regulation of body temperature in humans 2006 In: Journal of applied physiology. - : American Physiological Society. - 8750-7587 .- 1522-1601. ; 100:6, s. 2065-2072 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The set point has been used to define the regulated level of body temperature, suggesting that displacements of core temperature from the set point initiate heat production (HP) and heat loss (HL) responses. Human and animal experiments have demonstrated that the responses of sweating and shivering do not coincide at a set point but rather establish a thermoeffector threshold zone. Neurophysiological studies have demonstrated that the sensor-to-effector pathways for HP and HL overlap and, in fact, mutually inhibit each other. This reciprocal inhibition theory, presumably reflecting the manner in which thermal factors contribute to homeothermy in humans, does not incorporate the effect of nonthermal factors on temperature regulation. The present review examines the actions of these nonthermal factors within the context of neuronal models of temperature regulation, suggesting that examination of these factors may provide further insights into the nature of temperature regulation. It is concluded that, although there is no evidence to doubt the existence of the HP and HL pathways reciprocally inhibiting one another, it appears that such a mechanism is of little consequence when comparing the effects of nonthermal factors on the thermoregulatory system, since most of these factors seem to exert their influence in the region after the reciprocal cross-inhibition. At any given moment, both thermal and several nonthermal factors will be acting on the thermoregulatory system. It may, therefore, not be appropriate to dismiss the contribution of either when discussing the regulation of body temperature in humans.

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