| 1. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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Mechanisms for compositional variations of coatings sputtered from a WS2 target
- 2014
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In: Surface & Coatings Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0257-8972 .- 1879-3347. ; 252, s. 186-190
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Magnetron sputtering fromcompound targets is widely used for the deposition of compound films since it is easyto scale up and it exhibits a high reproducibility. Controlling film stoichiometry is crucial for obtaining filmswithdesired properties. However, the process is rather complex and sputtering from a compound target frequentlyresults in film compositions that deviate significantly from that of the target. This is due to a number of effectsrelated to the nature of the sputtering process which include preferential re-sputtering due to energetic particlebombardment at the substrate, different take-off angles, scattering in the gas phase, and different stickingcoefficients.In this work, we have investigated how sputtering from aWS2 target results in different film compositions as afunction of the position in the chamber, for different processing conditions. Hence, the films have not been characterizedwith respect to structural or morphological properties. A Monte-Carlo based software, accounting fordifferent take-off angles and scattering in the gas phase, was developed to simulate the compositional variationsat various positions in the chamber. Further, a number of experimentswere performed by varying the target voltage,process pressure, as well as the location of the substrate (on and off axis). Simulations and experiments revealsignificant compositional variations for different processing conditions. Experiments show that thesevariations are only slightly affected by the target voltage, while the most significant variations result from theprocessing pressure and position on the chamber. From the qualitatively good agreement between experimentsand simulations it is clear that gas phase scattering must be taken into account to explain the observed compositionaltrends, while the other effects are less important and sticking coefficients effectsmay even be negligible.It is therefore concluded that themajor effect responsible for the compositional variation of the film is the differentscattering behaviour of S andWin the gas phase.
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| 2. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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Sputter Rate Distribution and Compositional Variations in Films Sputtered from Elemental and Multi-Element Targets at Different Pressures
- 2014
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In: International Journal of Materials Science and Applications. - 2327-2635. ; 3:2, s. 29-36
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We report on the quantitative dependence of the deposition rate during magnetron sputtering as a function of the atomic mass, processing pressure and substrate location relative to the target. Targets made of four different materials (C, Al, Ti and Ta), ranging from very light to rather heavy atomic masses, were investigated theoretically initially to determine the deposition rate distribution of the sputtered atoms. In the second part, targets made of different combinations of these materials (Ta/C, Ta/Al, Ta/Ti and Ti/Al) were sputtered to investigate the compositional variations of deposited films. The different targets were sputtered at both low (0.27 Pa) and high (2.7 Pa) pressures, and both the deposition rates and compositions were determined at four different locations in the chamber. Further, Monte Carlo simulations were performed for the sputtered atoms in a simplified model of the vacuum chamber. Simulation and experiments are in adequate agreement and show a significant influence of the processing pressure on the deposition rate in various locations of the chamber. This effect is different for different target compositions and may sometimes result in very large compositional variations in films sputtered from segmented multi-element or alloy targets. Transport phenomena of the sputtered particles are also discussed based on a ballistic or diffusion-like process, depending on the sputtering pressure, mass and size of the sputtered atom as well as location in the deposition chamber. Since the materials studied range from light to heavy and the processing pressures cover the values where sputtering normally takes place, the results in this work can be extrapolated to predict the deposition profiles and compositional gradients for arbitrary material combinations and processing pressures.
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| 3. |
- Berg, Sören, et al.
(author)
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Upgrading the “Berg-model” for reactive sputtering processes
- 2014
-
In: Thin Solid Films. - : Elsevier BV. - 0040-6090 .- 1879-2731. ; 565, s. 186-192
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Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Several phenomena are neglected in the original “Berg model” in order to provide a simple model of the reactive sputtering process. There exist situations, however, where this simplified treatment limits the usefulness of the model. To partly correct for this, we introduce an upgraded version of the basic model. We abandon the simplifying assumption that compound targets are sputter eroded as molecules. Instead, the molecule is split and individual atoms will be sputter ejected. Also, the effect of ionized reactive gas atoms implanted into the target will be considered. We outline how to modify the original model to include these effects. Still, the mathematical treatment is maintained simple so that the new model may serve as an easy-to-understand tutorial of the complex mechanisms of reactive sputtering.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Larsen, Jes K, et al.
(author)
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Surface modification through air annealing Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 absorbers
- 2017
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In: Thin Solid Films. - : Elsevier BV. - 0040-6090 .- 1879-2731. ; 633, s. 118-121
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Recent studies demonstrate that air annealing can have a positive effect on the device performance of Cu2ZnSn(SxSe1-x)(4)[CZTSSe] solar cells. In this work air annealing of the selenium containing CZTSSe is compared to the pure sulfide CZTS. It is discovered that the selenium containing absorbers benefit from air annealing at higher temperatures than selenium free absorbers. The highest efficiency obtained utilizing the air annealing treatment on selenium containing absorbers is 9.7%. We find that the band gap is narrowed when air annealing, which is partially explained by increased Cu-Zn disorder. Furthermore Zn enrichment of the surface after etching is identified as a possible cause of enhanced device performance. It is additionally observed that elemental selenium present on the CZTSSe surface is reduced in the air annealing treatment. Selenium removal is another possible explanation for the enhanced performance caused by the air annealing treatment.
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| 6. |
- Nyberg, Harald, et al.
(author)
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Extreme friction reductions during inital running-in of W-S-C-Ti low-friction coatings
- 2013
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In: Wear. - : Elsevier. - 0043-1648 .- 1873-2577. ; 302:1-2 SI, s. 987-997
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The disulphides of tungsten and molybdenum are known for their low friction properties when used as solid lubricants. Due to their low hardness, their load bearing capacity when used as thin films is poor. When carbon is added to a WS2 coating, both of these shortcomings are improved, and a structure consisting of nanocrystals of WS2, and possibly tungsten carbide, in a matrix of amorphous carbon is formed. In this study, an attempt is made for further increasing the hardness of such coatings, by addition of Ti, a strong carbide former. A number of W–S–C(–Ti) coatings were deposited using magnetron co-sputtering, and characterised with regard to chemical composition, structure and tribological properties. It was seen that addition of Ti significantly increased the hardness of the coatings, while maintaining their excellent low friction properties in dry atmosphere. However, the coatings with Ti showed extremely high initial friction, a feature not seen for the coatings without Ti. The mechanisms behind this running-in behaviour were investigated by studying surfaces at early stages of wear. It was observed that tribofilms formed during sliding for the coatings containing Ti consisted mainly of TiO2, with platelets of WS2 appearing in the contact only after prolonged sliding. For the pure W–S–C coatings, WS2 was observed in the sliding interface almost instantly at the onset of sliding.
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| 7. |
- Nyberg, Harald, et al.
(author)
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Tribochemical formation of sulphide tribofilms from a Ti-C-S coating sliding against different counter surfaces
- 2014
-
In: Tribology letters. - : Springer Science+Business Media B.V.. - 1023-8883 .- 1573-2711. ; 56:3, s. 563-572
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Tribochemically active Ti-C-S coatings are nanocomposite coatings containing a S-doped titanium carbide, from which S can be released in a tribological contact. This work studies tribochemical reactions between a Ti-C-S coating and various counter surface materials, and their effect on the tribological performance. Tribological tests were performed in a ball-on-disc set-up, using balls of five different materials as sliding partners for the coating: 100Cr6 steel, pure W, WC, 316-L steel and Al2O3. For W balls, a WS2 tribofilm was formed, leading to low friction (down to A mu = 0.06). Furthermore, increasing normal load on the W balls was found to lead to a strong decrease in A mu and earlier formation of the low-friction WS2 tribofilm. Similar WS2 and MoS2 tribofilms were, however, not formed from WC- and Mo-containing 316-L balls. The performance when using WC and Al2O3 balls was significantly worse than for the two steel balls. It is suggested that this is due to sulphide formation from Fe, analogous to formation of anti-seizure tribofilms from S-containing extreme pressure additives and steel surfaces. The tribochemical activity of Ti-C-S coatings, with the possibility of S release, is thus beneficial not only for pure W counter surfaces, but also for Fe-based sliding partners.
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| 8. |
- Ross, N., et al.
(author)
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Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 Solar Cell Absorbers from Diffusion of Selenium into Annealed Cu2ZnSnS4 Absorbers
- 2016
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In: 2016 IEEE 43rd Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC). - New York : IEEE. - 9781509027248 ; , s. 492-497
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Small grain compound-sputtered Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide (CZTS) precursors and large grain recrystallized CZTS solar cell absorbers are annealed at sub-recrystallization temperatures in selenium atmosphere to promote selenium diffusion into the CZTS films. Grazing incidence x-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy show the presence of two distinct sulfide and mixed sulfide/selenide phases, with the selenide-like phase more prominent at the front surface of the absorber. Only a narrow range of sulfur-to-selenium ratios is observed in the sulfide/selenide phase. Secondary ion mass spectrometry profiles show a compositional sulfur-selenium gradient for samples annealed at 450 degrees C. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy reveals that the compositional gradient is formed by a spatial distribution of sulfide/selenide grains, embedded in the remaining sulfide absorber. Sulfur-selenium gradients within single absorber grains are not observed, indicating that the mixed sulfide/selenide phase nucleates and grows in competition with the existing sulfide phase, rather than forming by replacement of anions within existing crystals. IV and EQE measurements of devices fabricated from the selenized absorbers support this conclusion.
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| 9. |
- Sundberg, Jill, 1986-, et al.
(author)
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Influence of composition, structure and testing atmosphere on the tribological performance of W-S-N coatings
- 2014
-
In: Surface & Coatings Technology. - : Elsevier. - 0257-8972 .- 1879-3347. ; 258, s. 86-94
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- W-S-N coatings deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering offer the possibility of ultra-low friction in unlubricated sliding. In this work, W-S-N coatings of different composition and structure have been deposited, characterised and evaluated with respect to the tribological performance and tribofilm formation. The composition was varied by changing the flow of N-2 into the deposition chamber, leading to N contents ranging from 0 to 47 at.%. W-S-N coatings deposited without substrate heating are amorphous, while substrate heating results in coatings containing nanocystalline tungsten sulphide (WSx) for low N contents, and nanocrystalline tungsten nitride (WyN) at a high N content. The coatings were tribologically tested against steel balls in four different atmospheres dry N-2, dry air, humid N-2 and humid air to study the effects of atmospheric O-2 and H2O both separately and simultaneously. In dry N-2, all coatings exhibited an excellent performance with very low friction (mu approximate to 0.02) and wear. Notably, this included the N-richest and hardest coating, containing nanocrystalline WyN and only 13 at.% of S. The friction and wear increased on changing the atmosphere, in the order of dry air-humid N-2-humid air. In these three non-inert atmospheres, the friction and wear also increased with increasing N content of the coating. It is thus concluded that the presence of O-2, the presence of H2O, and a high N content (i.e., low Wand S contents) are three factors increasing the risk of high friction and wear, especially when occurring together. Raman spectroscopy mapping of the contact surfaces on the coatings and the balls showed that low friction and wear is connected to the presence of WS2 tribofilms in the contact, and that the three previously mentioned factors affect the formation and function of this tribofilm.
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| 10. |
- Sundberg, Jill, et al.
(author)
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Influence of Ti addition on the structure and properties of low-friction W–S–C coatings
- 2013
-
In: Surface & Coatings Technology. - : Elsevier. - 0257-8972 .- 1879-3347. ; 232, s. 340-348
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Transition metal dichalcogenides, such as WS2 and MoS2, are known for their layered structure and lubricating properties. When deposited as thin coatings, however, their use as solid lubricants is limited by their low hardness and load-bearing capacity. The addition of another element, such as carbon, can improve the mechanical properties, although the hardness of for example W-S-C coatings is still rather low. In this work, Ti has been added to W-S-C coatings in order to further increase the hardness by carbide formation. W-S-C and W-S-C-Ti coatings were deposited by non-reactive magnetron sputtering, and characterized with regard to composition, structure and mechanical and tribological properties. It was found that the addition of Ti leads to the formation of a new carbide phase, and a significant increase in hardness for coatings with moderate carbon contents. The friction properties of W-S-C-Ti coatings were found to be comparable to that of W-S-C coatings, with friction coefficients down to mu approximate to 0.02 and similar wear rates against steel in a dry atmosphere. Formation of WS2 in the wear track of W-S-C-Ti was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. It has thus been shown that the addition of Ti to W-S-C coatings can increase the hardness, while still maintaining WS2 lubrication.
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| 11. |
- Sundberg, Jill, 1986-, et al.
(author)
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Quaternary W-S-C-Ti films for tribological applications
- 2011
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- IntroductionTransition metal dichalcogenides such as WS2 are well-known for their layered structure and solid lubricant properties. The addition of another element, such as carbon, can improve the mechanical properties of the material, such as the hardness, while still maintaining the solid lubrication.1,2 Different theories regarding the friction mechanisms in W-S-C have been proposed: the low friction could be solely due to the WS2 phase2 or both the WS2 and the carbon phase could be responsible.1 Despite the hardness increase compared to pure WS2, W-S-C films still exhibit a quite low hardness. One route to increasing the hardness is to add a fourth element, which is a strong carbide-former (e. g. titanium), to form a hard carbide phase. In this work, W-S-C-Ti films have been deposited by magnetron sputtering and characterized with a variety of techniques. The mechanical and tribological properties have been studied and related to the composition.Experimental ProceduresThe films were deposited by non-reactive DC magnetron sputtering using two targets: graphitic carbon and WS2, with a ring-shaped titanium component mounted on the latter. The titanium content was varied by the size of the metal component, while the carbon content was varied by the carbon target power. Four series of films were deposited at room temperature and at 300°C.The micro- and nanostructure of the films was investigated by SEM and TEM, and XRD was used to study the presence of crystalline phases. The composition was determined by EDS, and the chemical bonding was studied by XPS and Raman spectroscopy. Nanoindentation was used to probe the mechanical properties of the different films, and ball-on-disc tests were performed in order to evaluate the tribological properties.Results and DiscussionPrevious studies on W-S-C suggest that the material consists of WS2 nanocrystallites embedded in an amorphous matrix. Also in this study, the only phase detected with XRD is WS2, with the typical WS2 peaks becoming broader with the addition of carbon indicating a decrease in crystallinity. TEM shows WS2 nanocrystallites embedded in an amorphous matrix. However, our results indicate that the composition of the matrix is more complex than what has previously been suggested. Chemical information from XPS suggests that the matrix is not based on carbon alone, but that it also includes a carbidic component. Furthermore, the S/W ratio in the samples is approximately constant but significantly lower than 2; such substochiometry in WS2 films is well known and we will discuss possible mechanisms for this behaviour.By adding titanium to W-S-C, the chemical bonding in the material is changed. XPS indicates the presence of Ti-C bonds even when no crystalline TiC grains are observed by XRD. For high titanium and carbon contents, a crystalline phase with the sodium chloride structure is observed, which has a cell parameter significantly larger than TiC. Furthermore, the added titanium changes the mechanical properties of the films, and an increase in hardness up to 100% from 6 GPa to 12 GPa can be observed. The effect of titanium addition, however, is dependent on the film composition and the deposition temperature.Tribological testing show friction coefficients down to approximately 0.02 in ball-on-disc tests using a steel ball in dry atmosphere for W-S-C films. The effect of titanium addition varies with the composition; high titanium contents combined with suitable carbon levels yields films that exhibit low and stable friction coefficients well under 0.02 under the aforementioned conditions. Thus, it is possible to tune the mechanical properties of W-S-C films, while still obtaining low friction, by the addition of titanium.References[1] A.A. Voevodin, J.S. Zabinski, Thin Solid Films 370, 223-231 (2000)[2] T. Polcar, M. Evaristo, A. Cavaleiro, Plasma Process. Polym. 6, 417-424 (2009)
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| 12. |
- Sundberg, Jill, 1986-, et al.
(author)
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Sulfur-doping of nc-TiC/a-C films by reactive sputtering
- 2012
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In: Thirteenth International Conference on Plasma Surface Engineering, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 10-14 September 2012.
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Nanocomposite thin films with carbide grains in a matrix of amorphous carbon have been found interesting for various mechanical and electrical applications. An important advantage of these materials is the possibility to tune the properties by varying the composition and the microstructure. A well-known example is the nc-TiC/a-C system, which is interesting for its tribological as well as its electrical and chemically protective properties. One way to modify the material is doping with a third element. Usually, another metal or a p-element such as oxygen or nitrogen is considered. In this work, however, Ti-C films have been doped with sulfur. The doping was performed by introduction of increasing amounts of H2S to the chamber during DC magnetron sputtering from elemental Ti and C targets.An increased flow of H2S during deposition leads to an increase in the S content of the films, as well as a slight decrease in the C:Ti ratio. Pure TiC/a-C films were proved by GI-XRD and XPS to contain crystalline TiC with the NaCl structure in a matrix of amorphous carbon. The introduction of S leads to a significant and gradual increase of the cell parameter of the carbide phase – from 4.3 Å up to more than 4.8 Å for coatings with approximately 20 at-% of S. This clearly indicates that the S atoms enter the carbide phase, forming a previously unknown Ti-C-S solid solution. The addition of S also affects the mechanical properties, such as the hardness which was seen to decrease from 8 GPa for pure TiC in an amorphous carbon matrix, to 5 GPa when doped with sulfur.Thus, the introduction of S is shown to have effects on the chemistry as well as the properties of nc-TiC/a-C thin films. In the current work, the effect of S doping on the structure, chemical bonding and mechanical properties as well as tribological performance will be presented.
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| 13. |
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Sundberg, Jill, et al.
(author)
-
Tribochemically Active Ti–C–S Nanocomposite Coatings
- 2013
-
In: Materials Research Letters. - : Taylor & Francis. - 2166-3831. ; 1:3, s. 148-155
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We demonstrate a new concept of self-adaptive materials, where sulphur is incorporated into TiC/a-C coatings and may be released in, for example, a tribological contact. By reactive sputtering with H2S, sulphur goes into the carbide to form a TiC x S y phase in an amorphous carbon matrix. The addition of sulphur lowers the friction against steel. Significantly lower friction is obtained against a tungsten counter-surface, as WS2 is generated in the contact. Annealing experiments and formation energy calculations confirm that sulphur can be released from TiC x S y . Ti–C–S coatings are thus chemically active in tribological contacts, creating possibilities of new low-friction systems.
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| 16. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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A study of the process pressure influence in reactive sputtering aiming at hysteresis elimination
- 2013
-
In: Surface & Coatings Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0257-8972 .- 1879-3347. ; 232, s. 357-361
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Reactive sputtering processes operating at different argon pressures (ranging from 0.3 to 2.7 Pa) have been studied for a number of gas/metal target combinations (Al, Mg, Y in Ar/O-2 and Ti in Ar/N-2). To transcend local deposition conditions, experiments were performed in three different deposition systems. Both experiments and process modeling show the existence of conditions where the hysteresis width may be significantly decreased or even be totally eliminated. This behavior is pronounced for low reactivity gas/metal target combinations such as Al/O-2 and Ti/N-2. It is suggested that for such gas/metal target combinations the direct ion implantation of the reactive gas will be the dominating poisoning mechanism at low total pressure. At elevated total pressure, however, this will no longer be the case. Here, the chemisorption may dominate. For chemisorption-dominated processes, it has been shown earlier that low reactivity materials will exhibit small hysteresis widths and sometimes also be hysteresis free. For materials like Mg and Y, the effect was, as expected, small due to the high affinity of oxygen for these metals.
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| 17. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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Applying "the upgraded Berg model" to predict hysteresis free reactive sputtering
- 2016
-
In: Surface and Coatings Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0257-8972.
-
Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Reactive sputtering is a popular process to deposit oxides, nitrides, and several other compounds. Unfortunately, this process mostly exhibits a hysteresis effect. The hysteresis causes a delicate choice of either a high deposition rate but not a fully oxidized/nitrided film or a fully formed compound film but at a significantly lower deposition rate. For high reactivity target material/reactive gas systems, the hysteresis forces the process to flip quite abrupt between these two conditions. Process control may therefore be quite critical. In this work we will use the original "Berg model" as well as the newly published "upgraded Berg model" to illustrate how hysteresis is generated. We have selected one simple graph (reactive gas flow vs. partial pressure) that gives clear indications of how the process may be affected in such a way as to decrease or even eliminate the hysteresis. Specific values of target size and composition, gas mixture as well as total pressure and pumping speed are processing parameters that may be selected in a way to eliminate hysteresis. We will show that this behavior is predicted by the simulations and also refer to experimental evidence for such behavior.
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| 18. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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Applying "the upgraded Berg model" to predict hysteresis free reactive sputtering
- 2015
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In: Surface & Coatings Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0257-8972 .- 1879-3347. ; 279, s. 39-43
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Reactive sputtering is a popular process to deposit oxides, nitrides, and several other compounds. Unfortunately, this process mostly exhibits a hysteresis effect. The hysteresis causes a delicate choice of either a high deposition rate but not a fully oxidized/nitrided film or a fully formed compound film but at a significantly lower deposition rate. For high reactivity target material/reactive gas systems, the hysteresis forces the process to flip quite abrupt between these two conditions. Process control may therefore be quite critical. In this work we will use the original "Berg model" as well as the newly published "upgraded Berg model" to illustrate how hysteresis is generated. We have selected one simple graph (reactive gas flow vs. partial pressure) that gives clear indications of how the process may be affected in such a way as to decrease or even eliminate the hysteresis. Specific values of target size and composition, gas mixture as well as total pressure and pumping speed are processing parameters that may be selected in a way to eliminate hysteresis. We will show that this behavior is predicted by the simulations and also refer to experimental evidence for such behavior.
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| 19. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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Hysteresis-free high rate reactive sputtering of niobium oxide, tantalumoxide, and aluminum oxide
- 2014
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In: Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology. A. Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films. - : American Vacuum Society. - 0734-2101 .- 1520-8559. ; 2, s. 041517-
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This work reports on experimental studies of reactive sputtering from targets consisting of a metaland its oxide. The composition of the targets varied from pure metal to pure oxide of Al, Ta, and Nb. This combines features from both the metal target and oxide target in reactive sputtering. If a certain relation between the metal and oxide parts is chosen, it may be possible to obtain a high deposition rate, due to the metal part, and a hysteresis-free process, due to the oxide part. The aim of this work is to quantify the achievable boost in oxide deposition rate from a hysteresis-free process by using a target consisting of segments of a metal and its oxide. Such an increase has been previously demonstrated for Ti using a homogeneous substoichiometric target. The achievable gain in deposition rate depends on transformation mechanisms from oxide to suboxides due to preferential sputtering of oxygen. Such mechanisms are different for different materials and the achievable gain is therefore material dependent. For the investigated materials, the authors have demonstrated oxide deposition rates that are 1.5–10 times higher than what is possible from metal targets in compound mode. However, although the principle is demonstrated for oxides of Al, Ta,and Nb, a similar behavior is expected for most oxides.
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| 20. |
- Särhammar, Erik, et al.
(author)
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Mechanisms responsible for compositional variations of films sputtered from a WS2 target
- 2012
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In: International Conference on Metallurgical Coatings and Thin films (ICMCTF) 23-27/04 2012, San Diego, abstract number:428.
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) such as WS2 are well-known for their layered structure and solid lubricant properties. However, beside low friction, a solid lubricant coating must also have a long wear life in order to perform well in a tribological situation. Thus, by adding carbon to the material the mechanical properties can be improved. However, when using a magnetron sputtering process, the resulting thin films are found to be sub-stoichiometric with respect to sulphur. This is due to a number of different effects; take-off angle, scattering, different sticking coefficients and energetic particle bombardment of the substrate.In this work we have used a non-reactive magnetron sputtering process to see how these effects affect the resulting film stoichiometry, and hence the tribological properties. This was done by changing the process pressure, DC-RF power, the location of the substrate (in and off axes) and by adding carbon to the material. Also, a newly developed Monte Carlo computer model is presented which makes it possible to simulate and predict how these changes will affect the resulting film stoichiometry.Simulations and experiments alike show that by reducing the energetic particle bombardment of the substrate, the S/W ratio increases. Tribological evaluation of the films concludes that an increasing S/W ratio is beneficial as it decreases the coefficient of friction of the films.
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| 21. |
- Särhammar, Erik, 1982-
(author)
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Sputtering and Characterization of Complex Multi-element Coatings
- 2014
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The thin film technology is of great importance in modern society and is a key technology in wide spread applications from electronics and solar cells to hard protective coatings on cutting tools and diffusion barriers in food packaging. This thesis deals with various aspects of thin film processing and the aim of the work is twofold; firstly, to obtain a fundamental understanding of the sputter deposition and the reactive sputter deposition processes, and secondly, to evaluate sputter deposition of specific material systems with low friction properties and to improve their performance.From studies of the reactive sputtering process, two new methods of eliminating the problematic and undesirable hysteresis effect were found. In the first method it was demonstrated that an increased process pressure caused a reduction and, in some cases, even elimination of the hysteresis. In the second method it was shown that sufficiently high oxide content in the target will eliminate the hysteresis.Further studies of non-reactive magnetron sputtering of multi-element targets at different pressures resulted in huge pressure dependent compositional gradients over the chamber due to different gas phase scattering of the elements. This has been qualitatively known for a long time but the results presented here now enable a quantitative estimation of such effects. For example, by taking gas phase scattering into consideration during sputtering from a WS2 target it was possible to deposit WSx films with a sulphur content going from sub-stoichiometric to over-stoichiometric composition depending on the substrate position relative the target.By alloying tungsten disulphide (WS2) with carbon and titanium (W-S-C-Ti) its hardness was significantly increased due to the formation of a new titanium carbide phase (TiCxSy). The best sample increased its hardness to 18 GPa (compared to 4 GPa for the corresponding W-S-C coating) while still maintaining a low friction (µ=0.02) due to the formation of easily sheared WS2 planes in the wear track.
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| 22. |
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| 23. |
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