| 1. |
- Sigmundsson, F., et al.
(author)
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Segmented lateral dyke growth in a rifting event at Bardarbunga volcanic system, Iceland
- 2015
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In: Nature. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0028-0836 .- 1476-4687. ; 517:7533
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Crust at many divergent plate boundaries forms primarily by the injection of vertical sheet-like dykes, some tens of kilometres long(1). Previous models of rifting events indicate either lateral dyke growth away from a feeding source, with propagation rates decreasing as the dyke lengthens(2-4), or magma flowing vertically into dykes from an underlying source(5,6), with the role of topography on the evolution of lateral dykes not clear. Here we show how a recent segmented dyke intrusion in the Bardarbunga volcanic system grew laterally for more than 45 kilometres at a variable rate, with topography influencing the direction of propagation. Barriers at the ends of each segment were overcome by the build-up of pressure in the dyke end; then a new segment formed and dyke lengthening temporarily peaked. The dyke evolution, which occurred primarily over 14 days, was revealed by propagating seismicity, ground deformation mapped by Global Positioning System(GPS), interferometric analysis of satellite radar images (InSAR), and graben formation. The strike of the dyke segments varies from an initially radial direction away from the Bardarbunga caldera, towards alignment with that expected from regional stress at the distal end. A model minimizing the combined strain and gravitational potential energy explains the propagation path. Dyke opening and seismicity focused at the most distal segment at any given time, and were simultaneous with magma source deflation and slow collapse at the Bardarbunga caldera, accompanied by a series of magnitude M > 5 earthquakes. Dyke growth was slowed down by an effusive fissure eruption near the end of the dyke. Lateral dyke growth with segment barrier breaking by pressure build-up in the dyke distal end explains how focused upwelling of magma under central volcanoes is effectively redistributed over long distances to create new upper crust at divergent plate boundaries.
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| 2. |
- de Zeeuw-van Dalfsen, E., et al.
(author)
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Geodetic data shed light on ongoing caldera subsidence at Askja, Iceland
- 2013
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In: Bulletin of Volcanology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0258-8900 .- 1432-0819. ; 75:5
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Subsidence within the main caldera of Askja volcano in the North of Iceland has been in progress since 1983. Here, we present new ground- and satellite-based deformation data, which we interpret together with new and existing micro-gravity data, to help understand which processes may be responsible for the unrest. From 2003 to 2007, we observe a net micro-gravity decrease combined with subsidence and from 2007 to 2009 we observe a net micro-gravity increase while the subsidence continues. We infer subsidence is caused by a combination of a cooling and contracting magma chamber at a divergent plate boundary. Mass movements at active volcanoes can be caused by several processes, including water table/lake level movements, hydrothermal activity and magma movements. We suggest that, here, magma movement and/or a steam cap in the geothermal system of Askja at depth are responsible for the observed micro-gravity variations. In this respect, we rule out the possibility of a shallow intrusion as an explanation for the observed micro-gravity increase but suggest magma may have flowed into the residing shallow magma chamber at Askja despite continued subsidence. In particular, variable compressibility of magma residing in the magma chamber as well as compressibility of the surrounding rock may be the reason why this additional magma did not create any detectable surface deformation.
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| 3. |
- Alwmark, Carl, et al.
(author)
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Impact origin for the Hummeln structure (Sweden) and its link to the Ordovician disruption of the L chondrite parent body
- 2015
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In: Geology. - 0091-7613. ; 43:4, s. 279-282
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Several studies of meteorites show that a large disruption of an asteroid occurred ca. 470 Ma in our solar system's asteroid belt. As a consequence, a large number of meteorite impacts occurred on Earth during the following few million years. The finding and characterization, for the first time, of planar deformation features in quartz grains from rocks collected at the Middle Ordovician Hummeln structure (Sweden) prove the hypervelocity impact origin of the structure. The unambiguous shock features allow us to close an similar to 200-yr-old discussion about its origin, and further the hypothesis of enhanced asteroid bombardment during the Middle Ordovician, adding an impact crater to the increasing number confirmed and properly dated from this period. Despite its relatively small size (similar to 1.2 km in diameter), similar to the young Meteor Crater (Arizona, USA), and its old age, the Hummeln structure is remarkably well preserved, contradicting the general assumption that small craters are not preserved on Earth for more than a few tens of thousands to a couple of million years.
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| 4. |
- Aradottir, N., et al.
(author)
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Drumlin formation within the Bustarfell drumlin field, northeast Iceland: integrating sedimentological and ground-penetrating radar data
- 2022
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In: Journal of Quaternary Science. - : Wiley. - 0267-8179 .- 1099-1417. ; 38:3, s. 386-402
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Drumlins are important bedforms of former glaciated landscapes as they demonstrate past ice-flow directions and elucidate processes that operated at the ice/bed interface. Recently mapped drumlins and other streamlined subglacial bedforms in northeast Iceland reveal the flow-sets of cross-cutting palaeo-ice streams that were active within the Iceland Ice Sheet (IIS) during and following the Last Glacial Maximum. Here we study the Bustarfell drumlin field within the Vopnafjorour-Jokuldalsheioi flow-set. The internal architecture of two drumlins was investigated using sedimentological analysis and ground-penetrating radar (GPR, 50 and 100 MHz) to illuminate subglacial processes that contributed to drumlin formation, as well as the history and dynamics of the IIS. On the stoss side of one of the drumlins, two subglacial traction till units were identified, separated by a thick unit of deformed glaciofluvial sand and gravel. The core of glaciofluvial material suggests that the drumlin formed around well-drained patches (sticky spots) in the subglacial bed that retarded the ice flow locally through increased basal drag and encouraged till deposition. Furthermore, our GPR data indicate a combination of erosional and depositional processes. We suggest that the glaciofluvial sediments were deposited as small ice-marginal fans on the Bustarfell plateau, possibly during the Bolling-Allerod interstadial, and that the drumlins were formed around these fans during a subsequent readvance during the Younger Dryas.
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| 5. |
- Broman, Curt, et al.
(author)
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Oxygen isotopes and implications for the cavity-grown quartz crystals in the Lockne impact structure, Sweden
- 2011
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In: GFF. - : The Geological Society of Sweden. - 1103-5897 .- 2000-0863. ; 133:02-jan, s. 101-107
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Well-developed quartz crystals are found in open cavities in the intensely fractured crystalline basement of the marine-target impact structure at Lockne in central Sweden. The 458 Ma impact structure has a well-preserved crater in Precambrian granitic basement rock that is covered by resurge deposits composed of breccias and fine-grained sedimentary units of mixed Ordovician limestone, Cambrian black bituminous shales and the basement granite. Directly after the impact, the resurge deposits formed when the seawater rushed back into the crater. The residual heat from the impact facilitated a short-lived hydrothermal system accompanied by the inflowing seawater, which resulted in mineral growth in fractures and open cavities of the granite basement. The oxygen isotope values of the first-precipitated minerals, the cavity-grown quartz crystals, range from +15.2 to +16.2 parts per thousand (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water) and differ from those of the hosting granite basement rock with delta(18)O quartz between +10.1 and +11.7 parts per thousand. The delta(18)O values of the quartz are more consistent with derivation from a fluid of relatively high delta(18)O probably attributable to oxygen isotope exchange during seawater-rock interactions in the resurge deposits. The occurrence of organic matter in association with the cavity-grown quartz strongly indicates a relationship to the black bituminous shale in the matrix of the breccia that rests on the crater floor. Comparing the results with previously obtained oxygen data on fracture-grown calcite from Lockne shows that oxygen isotope composition of the cavity-grown quartz crystals is less variable and probably more accurately reflects the original fluid source.
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Juhlin, Christopher, et al.
(author)
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A new interpretation of the sedimentary cover in the western Siljan Ring area, central Sweden, based on seismic data
- 2012
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In: Tectonophysics. - : Elsevier BV. - 0040-1951 .- 1879-3266. ; 580, s. 88-99
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Two new reflection seismic profiles over the Paleozoic successions of the western part of the Siljan Ring impact structure show a contrasting seismic signature. The more southerly c. 10. km long Mora profile reveals a highly disturbed structure, with only a few kilometers of relatively horizontally layered structures observed. However, interpretations of refracted arrivals in the data, that can be correlated to reflections, indicate the Silurian clastic rocks to be about 200. m thick in the central part of the profile. Weak reflections from about 600. m depth suggest a 400. m thick Ordovician limestone sequence to be present. Cores from the area show a mainly shale lithology for the Silurian and only a thin sequence of Ordovician strata, suggesting a rapid thickening of the Ordovician towards the north. On the more northern c. 12. km Orsa profile clear reflections from the Paleozoic successions are seen along the entire profile, except on the southernmost few kilometers. Based on interpretations of refracted arrivals, the Silurian succession appears to be considerably thinner here, and possibly absent at some locations. The Ordovician is also interpreted to be thinner in this area, with a maximum thickness of about 200-300. m along most of the profile. A deeper reflection from about 2. km within the crystalline basement may represent a dolerite sill. The lack of clear basement reflections on the Mora profile can be attributed to near-surface conditions and the acquisition geometry. The seismic data and recent coring in the area suggest the presence of a deeper paleo-basin towards the southwest with significantly more shales being deposited and the Paleozoic successions being severely disturbed. The shallow coring and seismic data will help form the basis for locating future boreholes for deeper drilling to study impact processes and the Paleozoic evolution of central Sweden.
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| 8. |
- Keiding, M., et al.
(author)
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Strain accumulation along an oblique plate boundary : the Reykjanes Peninsula, southwest Iceland
- 2008
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In: Geophysical Journal International. - 0956-540X .- 1365-246X. ; 172:2, s. 861-872
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We use annual GPS observations on the Reykjanes Peninsula (RP) from 2000 to 2006 to generate maps of surface velocities and strain rates across the active plate boundary. We find that the surface deformation on the RP is consistent with oblique plate boundary motion on a regional scale, although considerable temporal and spatial strain rate variations are observed within the plate boundary zone. A small, but consistent increase in eastward velocity is observed at several stations on the southern part of the peninsula, compared to the 1993-1998 time period. The 2000-2006 velocities can be modelled by approximating the plate boundary as a series of vertical dislocations with left-lateral motion and opening. For the RP plate boundary we estimate left-lateral motion 18(-3)(+4) mm yr(-1) and opening of 7(-2)(+3) mm yr(-1) below a locking depth of 7(-2)(+1) km. The resulting deep motion of 20(-3)(+4) mm yr(-1) in the direction of N(100(-6)(+8))degrees E agrees well with the predicted relative North America-Eurasia rate. We calculate the areal and shear strain rates using velocities from two periods: 1993-1998 and 2000-2006. The deep motion along the plate boundary results in left-lateral shear strain rates, which are perturbed by shallow deformation due to the 1994-1998 inflation and elevated seismicity in the Hengill-Hromundartindur volcanic system, geothermal fluid extraction at the Svartsengi power plant, and possibly earthquake activity on the central part of the peninsula.
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| 9. |
- Magnusson, E., et al.
(author)
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Development of a subglacial lake monitored with radio-echo sounding: case study from the eastern Skafta cauldron in the Vatnajokull ice cap, Iceland
- 2021
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In: Cryosphere. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1994-0416. ; 15:8, s. 3731-3749
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We present repeated radio-echo sounding (RES, 5 MHz) on a profile grid over the eastern Skafta cauldron (ESC) in Vatnajokull ice cap, Iceland. The ESC is a similar to 3 km wide and 50-150 m deep ice cauldron created and maintained by subglacial geothermal activity of similar to 1GW. Beneath the cauldron and 200-400 m thick ice, water accumulates in a subglacial lake and is released semi-regularly in jokulhlaups. The RES record consists of annual surveys conducted at the beginning of every summer during the period 2014-2020. Comparison of the RES surveys reveals variable lake area (0.5-4.1 km(2)) and enables traced reflections from the lake roof to be distinguished from bedrock reflections. This allows construction of a digital elevation model (DEM) of the bedrock in the area, further constrained by two borehole measurements at the cauldron centre. It also allows creation of lake thickness maps and an estimate of lake volume at the time of each survey, which we compare with lowering patterns and released water volumes obtained from pre- and post-jokulhlaup surface DEMs. The estimated lake volume was 250 GL (gigalitres = 10(6) m(3)) in June 2015, but 320 +/- 20 GL drained from the ESC in October 2015. In June 2018, RES profiles revealed a lake volume of 185 GL, while 220 +/- 30 GL were released in a jokulhlaup in August 2018. Considering the water accumulation over the periods between RES surveys and jokulhlaups, this indicates 10 %-20% uncertainty in the RES-derived volumes at times when significant jokulhlaups may be expected.
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| 10. |
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
- Ormö, Jens, et al.
(author)
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Comparison of clast frequency and size in the resurge deposits at the Chesapeake Bay impact structure (Eyreville and Langley cores): Clues to the resurge process
- 2009
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In: Geological Society of America Special Papers, 458. - 9780813724584 ; , s. 617-632
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Book chapter (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Collapse and inward slumping of unconsolidated sedimentary strata expanded the Chesapeake Bay impact structure far beyond its central basement crater. During crater collapse, sediment-loaded water surged back to fill the crater. Here, we analyze clast frequency and granulometry of these resurge deposits in one core hole from the outermost part of the collapsed zone (i.e., Langley) as well as a core hole from the moat of the basement crater (i.e., Eyreville A). Comparisons of clast provenance and flow dynamics show that at both locations, there is a clear change in clast frequency and size between a lower unit, which we interpret to be dominated by slumped material, and an upper, water-transported unit, i.e., resurge deposit. The contribution of material to the resurge deposit was primarily controlled by stripping and erosion. This includes entrainment of fallback ejecta and sediments eroded from the surrounding seafloor, found to be dominant at Langley, and slumped material that covered the annular trough and basement crater, found to be dominant at Eyreville. Eyreville shows a higher content of crystalline clasts than Langley. There is equivocal evidence for an anti-resurge from a collapsing central water plume or, alternatively, a second resurge pulse, as well as a transition into oscillating resurge. The resurge material shows more of a debris-flow–like transport compared to resurge deposits at some other marine target craters, where the ratio of sediment to water has been relatively low. This result is likely a consequence of the combination of easily disaggregated host sediments and a relatively shallow target water depth.
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| 13. |
- Ranta, E., et al.
(author)
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Fluid-rock reactions in the 1.3Ga siderite carbonatite of the GrOnnedal-ika alkaline complex, Southwest Greenland
- 2018
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In: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0010-7999 .- 1432-0967. ; 173:10
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Petrogenetic studies of carbonatites are challenging, because carbonatite mineral assemblages and mineral chemistry typically reflect both variable pressure-temperature conditions during crystallization and fluid-rock interaction caused by magmatic-hydrothermal fluids. However, this complexity results in recognizable alteration textures and trace-element signatures in the mineral archive that can be used to reconstruct the magmatic evolution and fluid-rock interaction history of carbonatites. We present new LA-ICP-MS trace-element data for magnetite, calcite, siderite, and ankerite-dolomite-kutnohorite from the iron-rich carbonatites of the 1.3Ga GrOnnedal-ika alkaline complex, Southwest Greenland. We use these data, in combination with detailed cathodoluminescence imaging, to identify magmatic and secondary geochemical fingerprints preserved in these minerals. The chemical and textural gradients show that a 55m-thick basaltic dike that crosscuts the carbonatite intrusion has acted as the pathway for hydrothermal fluids enriched in F and CO2, which have caused mobilization of the LREEs, Nb, Ta, Ba, Sr, Mn, and P. These fluids reacted with and altered the composition of the surrounding carbonatites up to a distance of 40m from the dike contact and caused formation of magnetite through oxidation of siderite. Our results can be used for discrimination between primary magmatic minerals and later alteration-related assemblages in carbonatites in general, which can lead to a better understanding of how these rare rocks are formed. Our data provide evidence that siderite-bearing ferrocarbonatites can form during late stages of calciocarbonatitic magma evolution.
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
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| 16. |
- Skelton, A., et al.
(author)
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Hydrochemical Changes Before and After Earthquakes Based on Long-Term Measurements of Multiple Parameters at Two Sites in Northern IcelandA Review
- 2019
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In: Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth. - : American Geophysical Union (AGU). - 2169-9313 .- 2169-9356. ; 124:3, s. 2702-2720
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Hydrochemical changes before and after earthquakes have been reported for over 50years. However, few reports provide sufficient data for an association to be verified statistically. Also, no mechanism has been proposed to explain why hydrochemical changes are observed far from earthquake foci where associated strains are small (<10(-8)). Here we address these challenges based on time series of multiple hydrochemical parameters from two sites in northern Iceland. We report hydrochemical changes before and after M >5 earthquakes in 2002, 2012, and 2013. The longevity of the time series (10 and 16years) permits statistical verification of coupling between hydrochemical changes and earthquakes. We used a Student t test to find significant hydrochemical changes and a binomial test to confirm association with earthquakes. Probable association was confirmed for preseismic changes based on five parameters (Na, Si, K, O-18, and H-2) and postseismic changes based on eight parameters (Ca, Na, Si, Cl, F, SO4, O-18, and H-2). Using concentration ratios and stable isotope values, we showed that (1) gradual preseismic changes were caused by source mixing, which resulted in a shift from equilibrium and triggered water-rock interaction; (2) postseismic changes were caused by rapid source mixing; and (3) longer-term hydrochemical changes were caused by source mixing and mineral growth. Because hydrochemical changes occur at small earthquake-related strains, we attribute source mixing and water-rock interaction to microscale fracturing. Because fracture density and size scale inversely, we infer that mixing of nearby sources and water-rock interaction are feasible responses to small earthquake-related strains. Plain Language Summary Changes in groundwater chemistry before and after earthquakes have been reported for over 50years. However, few studies have been able to prove that the earthquakes caused these changes. Also, no study has explained why these changes are often reported far from where the earthquake occurred. Here we address these challenges based on measurements of groundwater chemistry made at two sites in northern Iceland over time periods of 10 and 16years. We used statistical methods to prove that the earthquakes caused changes of ground water chemistry both before and after the earthquakes. We showed that changes of groundwater chemistry before earthquakes were caused by slow mixing between different groundwaters, which triggered reactions with the wall rock that changed groundwater chemistry, and that changes of groundwater chemistry after earthquakes were causes by rapid mixing between different groundwaters. That these changes were detected far from where the earthquakes occurred suggests that cracking of the wall rock at a very small scale was all that was needed for mixing of different groundwaters and reactions with the wall rock to occur.
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| 17. |
- Skelton, Alasdair, et al.
(author)
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Hydrochemical Changes Before and After Earthquakes Based on Long-Term Measurements of Multiple Parameters at Two Sites in Northern IcelandA Review
- 2019
-
In: Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth. - 2169-9313 .- 2169-9356. ; 124:3, s. 2702-2720
-
Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Hydrochemical changes before and after earthquakes have been reported for over 50years. However, few reports provide sufficient data for an association to be verified statistically. Also, no mechanism has been proposed to explain why hydrochemical changes are observed far from earthquake foci where associated strains are small (<10(-8)). Here we address these challenges based on time series of multiple hydrochemical parameters from two sites in northern Iceland. We report hydrochemical changes before and after M >5 earthquakes in 2002, 2012, and 2013. The longevity of the time series (10 and 16years) permits statistical verification of coupling between hydrochemical changes and earthquakes. We used a Student t test to find significant hydrochemical changes and a binomial test to confirm association with earthquakes. Probable association was confirmed for preseismic changes based on five parameters (Na, Si, K, O-18, and H-2) and postseismic changes based on eight parameters (Ca, Na, Si, Cl, F, SO4, O-18, and H-2). Using concentration ratios and stable isotope values, we showed that (1) gradual preseismic changes were caused by source mixing, which resulted in a shift from equilibrium and triggered water-rock interaction; (2) postseismic changes were caused by rapid source mixing; and (3) longer-term hydrochemical changes were caused by source mixing and mineral growth. Because hydrochemical changes occur at small earthquake-related strains, we attribute source mixing and water-rock interaction to microscale fracturing. Because fracture density and size scale inversely, we infer that mixing of nearby sources and water-rock interaction are feasible responses to small earthquake-related strains. Plain Language Summary Changes in groundwater chemistry before and after earthquakes have been reported for over 50years. However, few studies have been able to prove that the earthquakes caused these changes. Also, no study has explained why these changes are often reported far from where the earthquake occurred. Here we address these challenges based on measurements of groundwater chemistry made at two sites in northern Iceland over time periods of 10 and 16years. We used statistical methods to prove that the earthquakes caused changes of ground water chemistry both before and after the earthquakes. We showed that changes of groundwater chemistry before earthquakes were caused by slow mixing between different groundwaters, which triggered reactions with the wall rock that changed groundwater chemistry, and that changes of groundwater chemistry after earthquakes were causes by rapid mixing between different groundwaters. That these changes were detected far from where the earthquakes occurred suggests that cracking of the wall rock at a very small scale was all that was needed for mixing of different groundwaters and reactions with the wall rock to occur.
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| 18. |
- Stefánsson, H., et al.
(author)
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Microplastics in glaciers: First results from the vatnajökull ice cap
- 2021
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In: Sustainability (Switzerland). - : MDPI AG. - 2071-1050. ; 13:8
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Microplastic particles, as a second-phase material in ice, may contribute to the effect such particles have on the melting and rheological behaviour of glaciers, and thus influence the future meltwater contribution to the oceans and rising sea levels. Hence, it is of the utmost importance to map and understand the presence and dispersal of microplastics on a global scale. In this work, we identified microplastic particles in snow cores collected in a remote and pristine location on the Vatnajökull ice cap in Iceland. Utilising optical microscopy and µ-Raman spectroscopy, we visualised and identified microplastic particles of various sizes and materials. Our findings support that atmospheric transport of microplastic particles is one of the important pathways for microplastic pollution. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
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