| 1. |
- Bianchi Piccinini, Giulio, 1982, et al.
(author)
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How Do Drivers Respond to Silent Automation Failures? Driving Simulator Study and Comparison of Computational Driver Braking Models
- 2020
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In: Human Factors. - Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.; Volvo Group Trucks Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.; Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Blacksburg, USA.; University of Leeds, UK.; VTI, Gothenburg, Sweden. : SAGE Publications. - 1547-8181 .- 0018-7208. ; 62:7, s. 1212-1229
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: This paper aims to describe and test novel computational driver models, predicting drivers’ brake reaction times (BRTs) to different levels of lead vehicle braking, during driving with cruise control (CC) and during silent failures of adaptive cruise control (ACC). Background: Validated computational models predicting BRTs to silent failures of automation are lacking but are important for assessing the safety benefits of automated driving. Method: Two alternative models of driver response to silent ACC failures are proposed: a looming prediction model, assuming that drivers embody a generative model of ACC, and a lower gain model, assuming that drivers’ arousal decreases due to monitoring of the automated system. Predictions of BRTs issued by the models were tested using a driving simulator study. Results: The driving simulator study confirmed the predictions of the models: (a) BRTs were significantly shorter with an increase in kinematic criticality, both during driving with CC and during driving with ACC; (b) BRTs were significantly delayed when driving with ACC compared with driving with CC. However, the predicted BRTs were longer than the ones observed, entailing a fitting of the models to the data from the study. Conclusion: Both the looming prediction model and the lower gain model predict well the BRTs for the ACC driving condition. However, the looming prediction model has the advantage of being able to predict average BRTs using the exact same parameters as the model fitted to the CC driving data. Application: Knowledge resulting from this research can be helpful for assessing the safety benefits of automated driving.
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| 2. |
- Duncan, Carolyn A., et al.
(author)
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The Effect of Wave Motion Intensities on Performance in a Simulated Search and Rescue Task and the Concurrent Demands of Maintaining Balance
- 2022
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In: Human Factors. - : SAGE Publications. - 1547-8181 .- 0018-7208. ; 64:3, s. 579-588
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective The purpose of this study was to examine how intensity of wave motions affects the performance of a simulated maritime search and rescue (SAR) task. Background Maritime SAR is a critical maritime occupation; however, the effect of wave motion intensity on worker performance is unknown. Methods Twenty-four participants (12 male, 12 female) performed a simulated search and rescue task on a six-degree-of-freedom motion platform in two conditions that differed in motion intensity (low and high). Task performance, electromyography (EMG), and number of compensatory steps taken by the individual were examined. Results As magnitude of simulated motion increased, performance in the SAR task decreased, and was accompanied by increases in lower limb muscle activation and number of steps taken. Conclusions Performance of an SAR task and balance control may be impeded by high-magnitude vessel motions. Application This research has the potential to be used by maritime engineers, occupational health and safety professionals, and ergonomists to improve worker safety and performance for SAR operators.
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| 3. |
- Friberg, Marc, et al.
(author)
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The Effects of Stress on Tourniquet Application and CPR Performance in Layperson and Professional Civilian Populations
- 2023
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In: Human Factors. - : SAGE PUBLICATIONS INC. - 0018-7208 .- 1547-8181. ; 65:3, s. 496-507
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective The purpose of this study was to compare laypeoples and professional first responders ability to perform tourniquet application and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during calm and stressful circumstances. Background Life-threatening bleeding is a major cause of death that could be prevented by fast and appropriate first aid interventions. Therefore, laypeople are now being trained in bleeding control skills, transforming them from bystanders to immediate responders. However, critics have questioned whether laypeople are able to perform during more stressful conditions. Method Twenty-four laypersons and 31 professional first responders were tested in two conditions: a calm classroom scenario and a stressful scenario consisting of paintball fire and physical exertion. Stress and workload were assessed along with task performance. Results The experimental manipulation was successful in terms of eliciting stress reactions. Tourniquet application performance did not decline in the stressful condition, but some aspects of CPR performance did for both groups. First responders experienced higher task engagement and lower distress, worry and workload than the laypeople in both the calm and stressful conditions. Conclusion Stress did not affect first responders and laypeople differently in terms of performance effects. Stress should therefore not be considered a major obstacle for teaching bleeding control skills to laypeople. Application Tourniquet application can be taught to laypeople in a short amount of time, and they can perform this skill during stress in controlled settings. Concerns about laypeoples ability to perform under stress should not exclude bleeding control skills from first aid courses for civilian laypeople.
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| 4. |
- Gillespie, B. M., et al.
(author)
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The Impact of Robotic-Assisted Surgery on Team Performance: A Systematic Mixed Studies Review
- 2021
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In: Human Factors. - : SAGE Publications. - 0018-7208. ; 63:8, s. 1352-1379
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective The aim of this study is to describe the impact of robotic-assisted surgery on team performance in the operating room. Background The introduction of surgical robots has improved the technical performance of surgical procedures but has also contributed to unexpected interactions in surgical teams, leading to new types of errors. Method A systematic literature search of Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, PubMed, ProQuest, Cochrane, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and Scopus databases using key words and MeSH terms was conducted. Screening identified studies employing qualitative and quantitative methods published between January 2000 and September 2019. Two reviewers independently appraised the methodological quality of the articles using theMixed Methods Appraisal Tool(2018). Discussions were held among authors to examine quality scores of the studies and emergent themes, and agreement was reached through consensus. Themes were derived using inductive content analysis. Results Combined searches identified 1,065 citations. Of these, 19 articles, 16 quantitative and 3 qualitative, were included. Robotic-assisted surgeries included urology, gynecology, cardiac, and general procedures involving surgeons, anesthetists, nurses, and technicians. Three themes emerged: Negotiating the altered physical environs and adapting team communications to manage task and technology; managing the robotic system to optimize workflow efficiency; andtechnical proficiency depends on experience, team familiarity, and case complexity. Conclusion Inclusion of a robot as a team member adds further complexity to the work of surgery. Application These review findings will inform training programs specifically designed to optimize teamwork, workflow efficiency, and learning needs.
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| 5. |
- Kircher, Katja, 1973-, et al.
(author)
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On the Difference Between Necessary and Unnecessary Glances Away From the Forward Roadway : An Occlusion Study on the Motorway
- 2020
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In: Human Factors. - : Sage Publications. - 0018-7208 .- 1547-8181. ; 62:7, s. 1117-1131
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: The present study strove to distinguish traffic-related glances away from the forward roadway from non-traffic-related glances while assessing the minimum amount of visual information intake necessary for safe driving in particular scenarios.Background: Published gaze-based distraction detection algorithms and guidelines for distraction prevention essentially measure the time spent looking away from the forward roadway, without incorporating situation-based attentional requirements. Incorporating situation-based attentional requirements would entail an approach that not only considers the time spent looking elsewhere but also checks whether all necessary information has been sampled.Method: We assess the visual sampling requirements for the forward view based on 25 experienced drivers’ self-paced visual occlusion in real motorway traffic, dependent on a combination of situational factors, and compare these with their corresponding glance behavior in baseline driving.Results: Occlusion durations were on average 3 times longer than glances away from the forward roadway, and they varied substantially depending on particular maneuvers and on the proximity of other traffic, showing that interactions with nearby traffic increase perceived uncertainty. The frequency of glances away from the forward roadway was relatively stable across proximity levels and maneuvers, being very similar to what has been found in naturalistic driving.Conclusion: Glances away from the forward roadway proved qualitatively different from occlusions in both their duration and when they occur. Our findings indicate that glancing away from the forward roadway for driving purposes is not the same as glancing away for other purposes, and that neither is necessarily equivalent to distraction.
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| 6. |
- Kujala, Tuomo, et al.
(author)
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A Review of Occlusion as a Tool to Assess Attentional Demand in Driving
- 2023
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In: Human Factors. - : Sage Publications. - 0018-7208 .- 1547-8181. ; 65:5, s. 792-808
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: The aim of this review is to identify how visual occlusion contributes to our understanding of attentional demand and spare visual capacity in driving and the strengths and limitations of the method.Background: The occlusion technique was developed by John W. Senders to evaluate the attentional demand of driving. Despite its utility, it has been used infrequently in driver attention/inattention research.Method: Visual occlusion studies in driving published between 1967 and 2020 were reviewed. The focus was on original studies in which the forward visual field was intermittently occluded while the participant was driving.Results: Occlusion studies have shown that attentional demand varies across situations and drivers and have indicated environmental, situational, and inter-individual factors behind the variability. The occlusion technique complements eye tracking in being able to indicate the temporal requirements for and redundancy in visual information sampling. The proper selection of occlusion settings depends on the target of the research.Conclusion: Although there are a number of occlusion studies looking at various aspects of attentional demand, we are still only beginning to understand how these demands vary, interact, and covary in naturalistic driving.Application: The findings of this review have methodological and theoretical implications for human factors research and for the development of distraction monitoring and in-vehicle system testing. Distraction detection algorithms and testing guidelines should consider the variability in drivers’ situational and individual spare visual capacity.
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| 7. |
- Kumar, Arun, 1991, et al.
(author)
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Prediction of Drivers’ Subjective Evaluation of Vehicle Reaction Under Aerodynamic Excitations
- 2024
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In: Human Factors. - : SAGE Publications. - 1547-8181 .- 0018-7208. ; 66:5, s. 1600-1615
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: The objectives are to determine which quantities are important to measure to determine how drivers perceive vehicle stability, and to develop a regression model to predict which induced external disturbances drivers are able to feel. Background: Driver experience of a vehicle’s dynamic performance is important to auto manufacturers. Test engineers and test drivers perform several on-road assessments to evaluate the vehicle’s dynamic performance before sign-off for production. The presence of external disturbances such as aerodynamic forces and moments play a significant role in the overall vehicle assessment. As a result, it is important to understand the relation between the subjective experience of the drivers and these external disturbances acting on the vehicle. Method: A sequence of external yaw and roll moment disturbances of varying amplitudes and frequencies is added to a straight-line high-speed stability simulation test in a driving simulator. The tests are performed with both common and professional test drivers, and their evaluations to these external disturbances are recorded. The sampled data from these tests are used to generate the needed regression model. Results: A model is derived for predicting which disturbances drivers can feel. It quantifies difference in sensitivity between driver types and between yaw and roll disturbances. Conclusion: The model shows a relationship between steering input and driver sensitivity to external disturbances in a straight-line drive. Drivers are more sensitive to yaw disturbance than roll disturbance and increased steering input lowers sensitivity. Application: Identify the threshold above which unexpected disturbances such as aerodynamic excitations can potentially create unstable vehicle behaviour.
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| 8. |
- Pipkorn, Linda, 1991, et al.
(author)
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Driver Visual Attention Before and After Take-Over Requests During Automated Driving on Public Roads
- 2024
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In: Human Factors. - : SAGE Publications. - 1547-8181 .- 0018-7208. ; 66:2, s. 336-347
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective This study aims to understand drivers’ visual attention before and after take-over requests during automated driving (AD), when the vehicle is fully responsible for the driving task on public roads. Background Existing research on transitions of control from AD to manual driving has mainly focused on take-over times. Despite its relevance for vehicle safety, drivers’ visual attention has received little consideration. Method Thirty participants took part in a Wizard of Oz study on public roads. Drivers’ visual attention was analyzed before and after four take-over requests. Visual attention during manual driving was also recorded to serve as a baseline for comparison. Results During AD, the participants showed reduced visual attention to the forward road and increased duration of single off-road glances compared to manual driving. In response to take-over requests, the participants looked away from the forward road toward the instrument cluster. Levels of visual attention towards the forward road did not return to the levels observed during manual driving until after 15 s had passed. Conclusion During AD, drivers may look toward non-driving related task items (e.g., mobile phone) instead of forward. Further, when a transition of control is required, drivers may take over control before they are aware of the driving environment or potential threat(s). Thus, it cannot be assumed that drivers are ready to respond to events shortly after the take-over request. Application It is important to consider the effect of the design of take-over requests on drivers’ visual attention alongside take-over times.
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| 9. |
- Rydström, Annie, et al.
(author)
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Drivers’ Performance in Non-critical Take-Overs From an Automated Driving System—An On-Road Study
- 2023
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In: Human Factors. - Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE Publications. - 1547-8181 .- 0018-7208. ; 65:8, s. 1841-1857
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: The objective of this semi-controlled study was to investigate drivers’ performance when resuming control from an Automated Driving System (ADS), simulated through the Wizard of Oz method, in real traffic. Background: Research on take-overs has primarily focused on urgent scenarios. This article aims to shift the focus to non-critical take-overs from a system operating in congested traffic situations. Method: Twenty drivers drove a selected route in rush-hour traffic in the San Francisco Bay Area, CA, USA. During the drive, the ADS became available when predetermined availability conditions were fulfilled. When the system was active, the drivers were free to engage in non-driving related activities. Results: The results show that drivers’ transition time goes down with exposure, making it reasonable to assume that some experience is required to regain control with comfort and ease. The novel analysis of after-effects of automated driving on manual driving performance implies that the after-effects were close to negligible. Observational data indicate that, with exposure, a majority of the participants started to engage in non-driving related activities to some extent, but it is unclear how the activities influenced the take-over performance. Conclusion: The results indicate that drivers need repeated exposure to take-overs to be able to fully resume manual control with ease. Application: Take-over signals (e.g., visuals, sounds, and haptics) should be carefully designed to avoid startle effects and the human-machine interface should provide clear guidance on the required take-over actions.
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| 10. |
- Weibull, Kajsa, et al.
(author)
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False Alarm Effects in Early Warnings for Emergency Vehicles: Exploring Drivers Move-Over Behavior
- 2023
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In: Human Factors. - : SAGE PUBLICATIONS INC. - 0018-7208 .- 1547-8181.
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective: This study investigated drivers move-over behavior when receiving an Emergency Vehicle Approaching (EVA) warning. Furthermore, the possible effects of false alarms, driver experience, and modality on move-over behavior were explored. Background: EVA warnings are one solution to encourage drivers to move over for emergency vehicles in a safe and timely manner. EVA warnings are distributed based on the predicted path of the emergency vehicle causing a risk of false alarms. Previous EVA studies have suggested a difference between inexperienced and experienced drivers move-over behavior. Method: A driving simulator study was conducted with 110 participants, whereof 54 inexperienced and 56 experienced drivers. They were approached by an emergency vehicle three times. A control group received no EVA warnings, whereas the experimental groups received either true or false warnings, auditory or visual, 15 seconds before the emergency vehicle overtook them. Results: Drivers who received EVA warnings moved over more quickly for the emergency vehicle compared to the control group. Drivers moved over more quickly for each emergency vehicle interaction. False alarms impaired move-over behavior. No difference in driver behavior based on driver experience or modality was observed. Conclusion: EVA warnings positively affect drivers move-over behavior. However, false alarms can decrease drivers future willingness to comply with the warning. Application: The findings regarding measurements of delay can be used to optimize the design of future EVA systems. Moreover, this research should be used to further understand the effect of false alarms in in-car warnings.
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