| 1. |
- Klionsky, Daniel J., et al.
(author)
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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy
- 2012
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In: Autophagy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1554-8635 .- 1554-8627. ; 8:4, s. 445-544
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Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.
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| 2. |
- Niu, Li-Ping, et al.
(author)
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Mechanism of fluidized chlorination reaction of Kenya natural rutile ore
- 2014
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In: Rare Metals. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1001-0521 .- 1867-7185. ; 33:4, s. 485-492
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In this paper, the thermodynamics and kinetics of nature rutile carbochlorination in a fluidized-bed were investigated. The thermodynamic calculations of TiO2-C-Cl-2 system show that when C is excess in the solid phase, titanium tetrachloride and carbon monoxide can exist stably. At high temperature, the reaction with CO as the product is the dominant reaction. The appropriate reaction conditions are as follows: reaction temperature of 950 A degrees C, reaction time of 40 min, carbon ratio of 30 wt% of rutile, natural rutile particle size of -96 mu m, petroleum coke size of -150 mu m, and chlorine flow of 0.036 m(3)center dot h(-1). Under the above conditions, the reaction conversion rate of TiO2 can reach about 95 %. This paper proposed a reaction rate model, and got a rutile chlorination rate formula, which is generally consistent with the experimental data. For the TiO2-C-Cl-2 system, the reaction rate is dependent on the initial radius of rutile particle, density, and the partial pressures of Cl-2. From 900 to 1,000 A degrees C, the apparent activation energy is 10.569 kJ center dot mol(-1), and the mass diffusion is found to be the main reaction-controlling step. The expression for the chlorine reaction rate in the C-Cl-2 system is obtained, and it depends on the degree of reaction, the partial pressure of Cl-2, and the size of rutile particle.
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| 3. |
- Zhang, Chao-Zhi, et al.
(author)
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NONLINEAR OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NOVEL AND EFFECTIVE H-SHAPED CHROMOPHORES CONTAINING THREE PARALLEL AND NON-CONJUGATED D-pi-A UNITS
- 2011
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In: Journal of nonlinear optical physics and materials. - 0218-8635. ; 20:3, s. 327-339
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- H-shaped chromophores containing three parallel non-conjugated D-pi-A units are effective chromophores with high hyperpolarizability and good optical transparency. The semi-empirical methods ZINDO, AM1, MNDO and PM3 were employed to study the effect of strength of acceptors and donors, and steric repulsion between substituents on static first hyperpolarizabilities (beta(0)) and enhancements of beta(0) of the H-shaped chromophores. The results show that the H-shaped chromophore would exhibit the largest beta(0) and/or the largest enhancement of beta(0) of the chromophore when combination of a donor (D) and an acceptor (A) in a D-pi-A unit is suitable.
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| 4. |
- Zhang, Chao-Zhi, et al.
(author)
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Theoretical study of macroscopic optical nonlinearities of "parallel connection" chromophores containing PNA units
- 2013
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In: Journal of nonlinear optical physics and materials. - 0218-8635. ; 22:2, s. 1350014-
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The semi-empirical method ZINDO was employed to study relationship between macroscopic optical nonlinear parameter mu beta/MW (where mu is the dipole moment, beta is the first hyperpolarizability, and MW is molecular weight) and the number of parallel non-conjugated D-pi-A units in a chromophore. The computational results show that macroscopic optical nonlinear parameter mu beta/MW value increases remarkably from 1.64 to 2.53 with increasing the number of parallel and non-conjugated p-Nitroaniline (PNA) units in a chromophore from 1 to 3. Then the mu beta/MW value decreases rapidly from 2.53 to 0.43 with increasing the number of PNA units in a chromophore from 3 to 5. It suggests that design of chromophores containing two or three parallel non-conjugated D-pi-A units would be an effective strategy for increasing the first hyperpolarizability and macroscopic optical nonlinearity of designed NLO materials.
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