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| 2. |
- Gustafsson Sendén, Marie, et al.
(author)
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The (Not So) Changing Man: Dynamic Gender Stereotypes in Sweden
- 2019
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In: Frontiers in Psychology. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 1664-1078. ; 10
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- According to Social Role Theory, gender stereotypes are dynamic constructs influenced by actual and perceived changes in what roles women and men occupy (Wood and Eagly, 2011). Sweden is ranked as one of the most egalitarian countries in the world, with a strong national equality discourse and a relatively high number of men engaging in traditionally communal roles such as parenting and domestic tasks. This would imply a perceived change toward higher communion among men. Therefore, we investigated the dynamics of gender stereotype content in Sweden with a primary interest in the male stereotype and perceptions of gender equality. In Study 1, participants (N = 323) estimated descriptive stereotype content of women and men in Sweden in the past, present, or future. They also estimated gender distribution in occupations and domestic roles for each time-point. Results showed that the female stereotype increased in agentic traits from the past to the present, whereas the male stereotype showed no change in either agentic or communal traits. Furthermore, participants estimated no change in gender stereotypes for the future, and they overestimated how often women and men occupy gender non-traditional roles at present. In Study 2, we controlled for participants' actual knowledge about role change by either describing women's increased responsibilities on the job market, or men's increased responsibility at home (or provided no description). Participants (N = 648) were randomized to the three different conditions. Overall, women were perceived to increase in agentic traits, and this change was mediated by perceptions of social role occupation. Men where not perceived to increase in communion but decreased in agency when change focused on women's increased participation in the labor market. These results indicate that role change among women also influence perceptions of the male stereotype. Altogether, the results indicate that social roles might have stronger influence on perceptions of agency than perceptions of communion, and that communion could be harder to incorporate in the male stereotype.
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| 3. |
- Klysing, Amanda
(author)
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Exposure to Scientific Explanations for Gender Differences Influences Individuals’ Personal Theories of Gender and Their Evaluations of a Discriminatory Situation
- 2020
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In: Sex Roles: A Journal of Research. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0360-0025. ; 82:5-6, s. 253-265
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Gender lay theory is a framework of information interpretation related to gender categorisation and can be divided into twogeneral forms: gender essentialism versus gender as socially constructed. The present study investigated how exposure toscientifically framed explanations for gender differences affects individuals’ gender lay theory and if endorsement of an essentialist gender lay theory influences discrimination attribution. The 413 Swedish participants were exposed to scientific explanations of gender differences, with either a biological or a social constructionist perspective, or to no-explanation control. Comparedto the control condition, the social constructionist condition showed higher endorsement of a non-essentialist gender lay theory.The biological condition did not differ from the control condition, indicating that an essentialist view of gender might be theprevailing norm in Sweden. Discrimination attribution was indirectly affected by exposure to social constructionist explanationsof gender differences through increasing endorsement of a non-essentialist gender lay theory, which predicted a higher degree ofdiscrimination attribution. In other words, exposure to social constructionist explanations of gender differences predicted agreater recognition of discriminatory behaviour as such than did exposure to biological explanations or no explanation.Implications of the current study include the potential for social constructionist theories of gender to be used for educationalpurposes to increase recognition of discriminatory behaviour.
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| 4. |
- Klysing, Amanda, et al.
(author)
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Expressions of the Gender Binary in Recruitment Situations : Gender Normativity in Equal Employment Opportunity Statements and Applicant Gender Expression
- 2021
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The current research studied effects of different gender expressions (non-normative or normative)in two phases of recruitment: applicant attraction and applicant evaluation. Experiment 1 (N = 404) investigated how Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) statements in an organisation description that emphasized gender as binary (women and men), gender as diverse (multi-gender), or gender as irrelevant (de-gender) influenced organisational evaluations. There was no significant effect of EEO statement on evaluations of the organisation. Multi-gendered and de-gendered EEO statements increased perceptions of the organisation as having a gender diverse staff body. This indicates that gender minorities can be explicitly included in EEO statements without negative impact on gender majority groups. Experiment 2 (N = 214) investigated how job applicants with a normative or non-normative gender expression were evaluated by HR-specialists. Applicants with a non-normative gender expression were rated as more suitable for the position and recommended a higher starting salary. Women were in general rated as the most likely to be hired, and women with a non-normative gender expression were rated as more likely to be employed than ditto men. Having a non-normative gender expression was thus not found to be a cause for biased evaluations in this simulated initial recruitment situation.
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| 5. |
- Klysing, Amanda, et al.
(author)
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Gender diversity in recruitment: Influence of gender trouble on applicant attraction and evaluation
- 2022
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In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology. - : Wiley. - 0021-9029 .- 1559-1816. ; 52:8, s. 781-802
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The current research addresses gender trouble (acts that question the naturalness of a binary gender system) in two parts of the recruitment situation: applicant attraction and evaluation. Experiment 1 (N=1,147) investigated how different Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) statements in an organization description influenced organizational evaluations. The EEO statements emphasized gender as binary (women and men), gender as diverse (multi-gender), or gender as irrelevant (de-gender; compared with no EEO statement). Gender minority participants experienced decreased identity threat in response to the multi-gendered and the de-gendered EEO statements, which increased organizational attractivity. There was no significant effect of EEO statement for gender majority participants. Multi-gendered and de-gendered EEO statements increased perceived gender diversity within the organization. Experiment 2 (N=214) investigated how applicants with a normative or non-normative gender expression were evaluated by HR-specialists. Applicants with a non-normative gender expression were rated as more suitable for the position and recommended a higher starting salary than applicants with a normative gender expression. Women with a non-normative gender expression were rated as more likely to be employed than men with a non-normative gender expression, while women applicants regardless of gender expression were rated as the most likely to acquire the position. This research indicates that gender minorities can be explicitly included in EEO statements without negative impact on gender majority groups and with a positive impact on gender minority groups. Furthermore, a non-normative gender expression was not found to be a cause for biased evaluations in an initial recruitment situation. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC
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| 6. |
- Klysing, Amanda, et al.
(author)
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Gendered stereotype content for people with a nonbinary gender identity : [version 1; 1 peer review: 1 approved with reservations]
- 2023
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In: Routledge Open Research. - 2755-1245. ; 2:45
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Journal article (other academic/artistic)abstract
- BackgroundGender stereotypes about women and men have a complementary structure, where women and men are seen as high/low in feminine characteristics and low/high in masculine characteristics. These stereotypes are related to representation within social roles, where beliefs about social role occupation influences which characteristics are associated with women or men. It is not known how people with gender identities that do not fit a binary structure are stereotyped. The current study provides a first step towards addressing this gap.MethodsSwedish participants (N = 152) reported descriptive stereotype content (positive/negative feminine/masculine personality characteristics) and estimations of representation within domestic and occupational social roles for people with a nonbinary gender identity for the past, present, and future in a between-groups design. Stereotype content for the past included a higher degree of feminine compared to masculine characteristics, but ratings for the present and future showed no differentiation between femininity and masculinity.ResultsPeople with a nonbinary gender identity were believed to more frequently occupy feminine compared to masculine social roles for all time points; this was especially pronounced for occupational social roles. The theorised connection between social role occupation and stereotype content did not emerge: degree of positive masculinity and femininity correlated positively with representation in masculine domestic and occupational roles respectively, but positive femininity was negatively correlated with representation in feminine occupational roles.ConclusionsThese results indicate that stereotypes about people with a nonbinary gender identity do not show the same complementary pattern or reliance on social roles as gender stereotypes about women and men, but that there is a feminine bias in perceptions of social role occupation for people with a nonbinary gender identity.
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| 8. |
- Klysing, Amanda
(author)
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Normative gender bias : Effects of pronoun forms on mental representations of individuals with different gender expressions
- 2022
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Gender-fair language planning aims to increase linguistic inclusion of underrepresented groups, for example by using paired pronouns (he/she) instead of generic masculine forms (he). However, using paired binary forms might evoke a normative gender bias where words lead to stronger associations to individuals with normative gender expressions than to individuals with non-normative gender expressions. In two online experiments in a simulated recruitment context, we compared the extent that the paired pronouns he/she (Swedish and English), the neo-pronouns hen (Swedish) and ze (English), and singular they (English), evoked a normative gender bias for Swedish- (N = 227 and 268) and English- (N = 600) speaking participants. The results showed that the paired pronouns he/she evoked a normative gender bias, whereas Swedish hen did not. In contrast to hen, ze and singular they did evoke a normative gender bias. However, among participants familiar with ze as a non-binary pronoun, it seemed to reduce a normative gender bias, while familiarity had no effect regarding singular they. These results suggest that neo-pronouns, but not paired pronouns, have the potential to reduce a normative gender bias, but that they should be actively created new words, and well-known to the language users as non-binary pronouns.
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| 9. |
- Klysing, Amanda, et al.
(author)
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Perception of gender equality statements : Explicit mention of non-binary gender identities as a strategy for creating a more inclusive organization image
- 2019
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In: Abstract Book of the 19th European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology Congress. ; , s. 1802-1802
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Purpose: Many organizations include gender equality policy statements in their information material. Our aim was to explore if different types of equality statements influence organization appeal and estimates of organization diversity.Design: We tested three types of equality statements in a between-groups design (N = 424): (1) gender-balance (equality between women and men), (2) gender-blind (equality regardless of gender), (3) inclusive-gender (equality between women, men and individuals with a non-binary or other gender identity). Dependent variables were organization appeal, estimated organization equity and estimated diversity within the organization.Results: For organization appeal and organization equity, no differences were found between conditions. General diversity within the organization was rated as significantly higher in the inclusive-gender condition compared to the gender-balance condition. No other between-group comparison was significant.Limitations: Potential positive effects of an inclusive gender equality statement for individuals with a non-binary gender identity could not be assessed due to lack of participants.Implications: Gender equality statements which explicitly include individuals of all gender identities (i.e., does not treat gender as a binary variable) seem to be received similarly to the other types of equality statements tested, with the exception of higher estimated diversity compared to a genderbalance statement. Results support the use of inclusive gender equality statements since they are inclusive of a larger number of individuals and do not differ from a gender-blind statement.Originality: This is the first study investigating the impact of different types of gender equality statements which include gender identities other than women and men.
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| 14. |
- Klysing, Amanda, et al.
(author)
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Stereotype Content at the Intersection of Gender and Sexual Orientation
- 2021
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In: Frontiers in Psychology. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 1664-1078. ; 12
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- According to the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), the content of stereotypes differs on two dimensions: communion and agency. Research shows that for stereotypes about the general gender categories of “women” and “men,” there is an ambivalent pattern of communion and agency, where high levels on one dimension are associated with low levels on the other. For sexual minority stereotypes, a gender inversion has been found, whereas homosexual women are seen as more similar to men in general than to women in general, whereas homosexual men are seen as more similar to women in general than to men in general. However, there is limited research on how stereotype content for general groups relate to stereotype content for subgroups with intersecting category memberships. This research addresses this gap by investigating stereotype content at the intersection of gender and sexual orientation, including stereotype content for general gender groups, heterosexual groups, homosexual groups, and bisexual groups. In Study 1, a community sample from Sweden (N = 824) rated perceived communion and agency for women and men in general, as well as hetero-, homo-, and bisexual women and men. In Study 2, a nationally representative Swedish sample (N = 424) performed the same rating task, and in addition completed Single-Category IATs (SC-IATs) for warmth and competence. Results from both studies show that the stereotype content for the general categories “women” and “men” overlap with the stereotype content for heterosexual same-gender targets. Homosexual and bisexual groups were rated as more similar to their non-congruent gender category than same gender heterosexual categories were, but stereotype content for sexual minority groups did not overlap with either general gender categories, thus showing only incomplete gender inversion of stereotype content. Implicit associations between “women” and “warmth” were significantly stronger than associations between “men” and “warmth.” There were no other significant relations between implicit associations to warmth/competence and gender or sexual orientation. Theoretical and methodological implications for future research into intersectional stereotype content are presented, including how the findings inform the co-dependent relationship between a binary gender structure and a heteronormative ideology.
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| 17. |
- Klysing, Amanda, et al.
(author)
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The Use and Perception of Reclaimed Group Labels for Lesbian Women and Gay Men
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In: Journal of Language and Social Psychology. - 0261-927X. ; , s. 1-27
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This research tests whether self-labelling with a derogatory or reclaimed label is perceived as an act of reclamation. A pilot study (N = 102) identified English terms used to label lesbian women and gay men. The main study (N = 276) used a between-groups vignette design in which participants read about a woman/man self-labelling with a descriptive (lesbian/gay), reclaimed (queer), or derogatory group (dyke/fag) label. We assessed perceptions of the speaker (control/influence, agency, and efficacy) and group power, label offensiveness, and the likelihood of using the label in the future. Descriptive labels were perceived as less offensive and more likely to be used compared to reclaimed and derogatory labels. For gay men, using a derogatory label compared to other labels decreased perceived agency, but did not influence control/influence and efficacy. For lesbian women, there were no differences in perceptions of power depending on the label used.
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| 18. |
- Klysing, Amanda
(author)
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Who is Woman and Who is Man? : Normativity at Intersections of Gender and Sexual Orientation
- 2023
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Current gender norms predominantly construct gender as an expression of binary sex categories that are different but complementary. A performative view of gender instead analyses gender as an emergent feature of social interactions that is created by the constant repetition of acts in relation to discourses of gender. Within these hegemonic discourses, gender is constructed as fundamentally heterosexual. That is, there is an epistemic model of gender that justifies the existence of binary, complementary genders through appeals to complementarity within the structure of heterosexuality. Using an intersectional approach, this dissertation aims to analyse how gender norms of binarity and heterosexuality are expressed in mental representations at intersections of gender and sexual orientation. Study I examined how explicit and implicit stereotype content for groups at intersections of gender and sexual orientation relate to general gender stereotypes. Study II examined the influence of the social ideologies androcentrism and heterocentrism on cultural prototypes of general gender and sexual orientation categories and their intersecting subgroups. Finally, Study III examined how gender non-normativity in organisation communication and applicant gender expression can influence a recruitment situation.Study I showed that the content of explicit, but not implicit, cultural stereotypes for women and men in general only match the stereotype content for heterosexual women and men. Stereotype content for homosexual and bisexual women and men was incongruent with that of their respective gender groups and instead partially gender inverted. Study II showed that cultural prototypes for ‘women’ and ‘men’ are strongly influenced by heterocentrism, as they include an assumption of heterosexuality. The cultural prototype for ‘homosexual people’ was influenced by androcentrism, such that it was more representative of gay men than of lesbian women, but androcentrism showed no direct influence on cultural prototypes for ‘heterosexual people’ or ‘bisexual people’. Study III showed that organisational communication that explicitly moves beyond binary gender can increase perceptions of organisational attractiveness among gender minority individuals, with no measurable impact on gender majority individuals. Additionally, applicants with a non-normative gender expression did not face the hypothesised discriminatory outcomes when assessed by Swedish HR-professionals. This dissertation used empirical, quantitative methods to analyse how gender is structure within a heterosexual matrix of cultural intelligibility and what the consequences are of becoming unintelligible. The findings support the perspective that gender and sexual orientation categories do not represent natural kinds and are instead constructed in relation to each other. Treating gender and sexual orientation as co-constitutive is a break with dominant disciplinary practices in psychological research but doing so would provide a better possibility of analysing how gender influences the lives of those acting within and outside of gender norms.
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| 19. |
- Renström, Emma, et al.
(author)
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Personal pronouns and person perception - Do paired and nonbinary pronouns evoke a normative gender bias?
- 2024
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In: British Journal of Psychology. - : Wiley-Blackwell. - 0007-1269 .- 2044-8295. ; 115:2, s. 253-274
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Research on gender-fair language aims to identify language inclusive to a multitude of individuals, for example, increasing the visibility of women by using paired pronouns (he/she) instead of generic masculine forms (he). However, binary presentations like he/she might come with unwanted side effects and evoke what we label as normative gender bias. A normative gender bias is defined as when words lead to stronger associations with individuals with normative gender expressions than with individuals with non-normative gender expressions, thus contributing to making non-normative individuals invisible. In three experiments, we compared the extent to which the paired pronoun he/she (Swedish and English), the neo-pronouns hen (Swedish), ze (English), and the generic pronoun singular they (English) evoked a normative gender bias. Swedish- (N = 219 and 268) and English- (N = 837, from the UK) speaking participants read about individuals referred to with the paired pronoun he/she or with hen, ze, or they. In Experiment 1 (Swedish), there was no main effect of condition on a normative bias, but in Experiment 2 (Swedish), the paired pronouns he/she evoked normative gender bias while hen did not. In Experiment 3 (English), both ze and singular they evoked normative gender bias, although normative associations were lower in these conditions compared to he/she. Furthermore, the normative bias was lower among participants who had knowledge about the use of ze as a nonbinary pronoun. Finally, neither ze nor they evoked a normative gender bias when their use was explicitly stated to be nonbinary. A potential explanation for why singular they did not generally result in less normative associations, despite almost all participants knowing about it, may include its more common use as a generic pronoun. Taken together, our results suggest that neo-pronouns, but not paired pronouns, have the potential to evoke less normative associations, but that they must be both (1) actively created new words and (2) well-known to language users as nonbinary pronouns.
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