| 1. |
- Moldanová, Jana, et al.
(författare)
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Physical and chemical characterisation of PM emissions from two ships operating in European Emission Control Areas
- 2013
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1867-8548 .- 1867-1381. ; 6:12, s. 3577-3596
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper emission factors (EFs) for particulate matter (PM) and some sub-components as well as gaseous substances were investigated in two onboard measurement campaigns. Emissions from two 4-stroke main engines were measured under stable-load conditions. The impact of varying engine load on the emissions was investigated on one of the engines, and the impact of fuel quality on the other, where heavy fuel oil (HFO) with sulphur content 1% and 0.5% and marine gas oil (MGO) with sulphur content 0.1% were used. Furthermore, emissions from one auxiliary engine were studied. The measured EFs for PM mass were in the range of 0.3 to 2.7 g kg−1 fuel with the lowest values for emissions from the combustion of MGO, and the highest values for HFO with a sulphur content of 1%. The PM mass size distribution was dominated by particles in accumulation mode. Emission factors for particle numbers EF(PN) in the range of 5 × 1015–1 × 1017 # kg−1 fuel were found, the number concentration was dominated by particles in the ultrafine mode and ca. 2/3 of the particle number were non-volatile. The most abundant component of the PM mass was organic carbon, making up 25–60% of the PM. The measured EFs for organic carbon (OC) were 0.6 g kg−1 fuel for HFO and 0.2 g kg−1 fuel for MGO. Elemental carbon (EC) made up 10–38% of the PM mass, with no significant differences between HFO and MGO fuels. The concentrations of metals on sampled filters were investigated with energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) and the detected metal elements in exhaust when using HFO was concluded to originate from both the fuel (V, Ni, Fe) and the lubricant (Ca, Zn), while for the case of MGO combustion, most of the metals were concluded to originate from the lubricants. The measured emission factors for sulphate particles, EF (SO2−4), were low, ca. 0.1–0.2 g kg−1 fuel for HFO with 1% sulphur, 0.07–0.09 g kg−1 fuel for HFO with 0.5% sulphur and 0.003–0.006 g kg−1 fuel for MGO. This corresponds to 0.1–0.8% and 0.1–0.6% of fuel S converted to PM sulphate for HFO and MGO, respectively. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) images of the collected PM showed three different types of particles: relatively pure soot; char and char-mineral particles; and amorphous, probably organic particles containing inorganic impurities. The maps of elements obtained from STEM showed a heterogeneous composition of primary soot particles with respect to the trace metals and sulphur. Temperature-programmed oxidation (TPO) of PM showed higher soot oxidation reactivity compared to automotive diesel soot, PM from the HFO exhaust being more reactive than PM from the MGO exhaust. Oxidative potential measured as the rate of consumption of Dithiothreitol (DTT) was for the first time measured on PM from ship exhaust. The obtained values were between 0.01 and 0.04 nmol DTT min−1 μg−1 PM, which is quite similar to oxidative potentials of PM collected at urban and traffic sites. The data obtained during the experiments add information about emission factors for both gaseous and PM-bound compounds from ship engines using different fuels and under different engine-load conditions. Observed variability of the EFs illustrates uncertainties of these emission factors as a result of influences from fuel and lubricant composition, from differences between individual engines and from the differences in sampling conditions.
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| 2. |
- Andersson, Dan, 1966, et al.
(författare)
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A TOTAL COST TOOL FOR INTERNALISING LOGISTICS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES
- 2013
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Ingår i: 2013 Logistics Research. - 9781904564478
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose: It is becoming increasingly important to analyze the environmental impact and overall effectiveness of goods transport systems. When making decisions that will have short or long term effects on these systems there is a need to understand their consequences thereby it is necessary to measure and evaluate different options. The impact of transport on the environment, climate, health and other factors can be calculated as external costs and be internalized. Also in logistics there are a number of costs that are intangible and very hard to calculate, for instance service deficiency costs which also needs to be internalized and become a part of the total cost. The purpose of this paper is to develop and evaluate a tool that can be used to analyse the potential effect of different ways to improve transport of goods on the overall logistics system performance. The tool should combine both economical and environmental performance objectives by providing estimates and corresponding uncertainties of: 1) transport efficiency and effectiveness, expressed as total logistics cost, and 2) environmental and other external interference, expressed as external costs.Research approach: The calculation tool is used in a case study to in in order understand the need for and availability of data needed for the using the analysis tool. In order to capture the intrinsic uncertainties in these types of models, uncertainty calculations are made.Findings and Originality: The result is a total cost analysis model, which takes uncertainty into account when analyzing the environmental impact and overall effectiveness of goods transport systems. By internalizing external effects it is possible to give a certain indication of the effect of different proposed logistics changes.Practical Impact: The new tool can be helpful for decision makers at different hierarchical levels in an organization. From tactical decisions regarding goods transports but also strategic decision making regarding for instance localization of production units and warehouses. There is a need for better understanding of the long-term effects of transport decision and how these will be influenced if the full cost of environmental effects is considered. By improving this understanding the environmental impact caused by goods transport may be reduced at the same time as the competitiveness of the companies may be increased.
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| 3. |
- Bengtsson, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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A comparative life cycle assessment of marine fuels: liquefied natural gas and three other fossil fuels
- 2011
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Ingår i: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment. - : SAGE Publications. - 2041-3084 .- 1475-0902. ; 225:2, s. 97-110
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Air emissions from shipping have received attention in recent years and the shippingindustry is striving for solutions to reduce their emissions and to comply with stricter regulations.Strategies to reduce emissions can consist of a fuel switch, engine changes, or end-ofpipetechnologies, but they do not necessarily imply reduced life cycle emissions. The presentpaper assesses the environmental performance of marine fuels from well-to-propeller using lifecycle assessment (LCA). Four fossil fuels are compared: heavy fuel oil (HFO), marine gas oil,gas-to-liquid (GTL) fuel, and liquefied natural gas (LNG), combined with two exhaust abatementtechniques: open-loop scrubber and selective catalytic reduction. LNG and other alternativesthat comply with the SECA 2015 and Tier III NOx requirements give decreased acidification andeutrophication potentials with 78–90 per cent in a life cycle perspective compared with HFO. Incontrast, the use of LNG does not decrease the global warming potential by more than 8–20 percent, the amount depending mainly on the magnitude of the methane slip from the gas engine.None of the fossil fuels scrutinized here would decrease the greenhouse gas emissions significantlyfrom a life cycle perspective. The study supports the need for LCA when evaluating theenvironmental impact of a fuel change, e.g. it is found that the highest global warming potentialduring the whole life cycle is connected to the alternatives with GTL fuel.
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| 4. |
- Bengtsson, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental Assessment of Two Pathways Towards the Use of Biofuels in Shipping
- 2012
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Ingår i: Energy Policy. - : Elsevier BV. - 0301-4215. ; 44, s. 451-463
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The goal of this study is to evaluate the life cycle performance of two alternative pathways to biofuels in the shipping industry: the 'diesel route' and the 'gas route'. The diesel route comprises of a shift from heavy fuel oil to marine gas oil and then a gradual shift to biodiesel, whereas the gas route comprises of a shift to liquefied natural gas and then a gradual shift to liquefied biogas. The two routes are assessed in a case study for the ferry traffic between the Swedish mainland and the island Gotland. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to evaluate the environmental performance with the functional unit chosen to be one year of ro-pax ferry service, including both passenger and goods transportation. The gas route is indicated to have better overall environmental performance than the diesel route. Furthermore, use of biofuels is illustrated as one possible measure to decrease the global warming impact from shipping, but to the expense of greater environmental impact for some other impact categories. As an example, the global warming potential (GWP(100)) was shown to decrease with the use of biofuels in this study, while the eutrophication potential and the primary energy use increased.
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| 5. |
- Bengtsson, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental feasibility of biogas and biodiesel as fuel for passenger ferries
- 2011
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Ingår i: SETAC Europe 17th LCA Case Study Symposium, 28 February -1March, Budapest. - 9789638667076 ; , s. 53-54
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Mobility is important in our everyday life. Marine transportation has the potential to increase its level of sustainability, by implementing new cleaning technologies, increase its energy efficiency and/or by changing fuel. The ferry traffic between the Swedish mainland and the island Gotland has a unique opportunity to be a first mover with environmentally sustainable shipping solutions, as it is procured by the Swedish authority Rikstrafiken. The present contract expires in January 2015 and Rikstrafiken has therefore made an investigation regarding the future ferry traffic [1]. This investigation stresses long term economical, social and environmental sustainability as conditions for the future ferry traffic. One possible solution to come closer to environmental sustainability could be to use biogas as fuel. Biogas has shown good life cycle environmental performance as vehicle fuel (e.g.[2]), but the use of liquefied biogas on ships has not been tested or evaluated. Liquefaction is needed in order to have acceptable energy content per unit volume of the fuel, but the liquefaction process is energy intensive and costly [3]. Biodiesel is another possible solution to consider. Both biogas and biodiesel can be blended with fossil fuels (natural gas and diesel, respectively) [4]. Here the environmental performance of liquefied biogas and biodiesel are compared with marine gas oil and liquefied natural gas.
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| 6. |
- Bengtsson, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Fuels for short sea shipping: A comparative assessment with focus on environmental impact
- 2014
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Ingår i: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment. - : SAGE Publications. - 2041-3084 .- 1475-0902. ; 228:1, s. 44-54
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Short sea shipping is facing harder requirements on exhaust emissions in the coming years as stricter regulations are enforced in some regions of the world. In addition, shortage of conventional fuels as well as restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions makes the search for new fuels of interest. The objective of this article is to assess important characteristics to evaluate when selecting fuels for short sea shipping. The following four criteria are considered: (1) local and regional environmental impacts, (2) overall environmental impact, (3) infrastructure and (4) fuel cost and competition with other transport modes. Special focus is put on environmental impact, and life cycle assessment is used for the environmental assessment. The fuels compared in this study are heavy fuel oil, marine gas oil, biomass-to-liquid fuel, rapeseed methyl ester, liquefied natural gas and liquefied biogas. This study shows that liquefied natural gas will reduce the local and regional environmental impacts more relative to the other fuels investigated here. Furthermore, liquefied biogas is found to be the most preferable if all envirtsonmental impact categories are considered. This study also highlights the importance to consider other impact categories for short sea shipping compared to deep sea shipping and shows that NOX emission is the dominant contributor to all assessed environmental impact categories with local and regional impac
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| 7. |
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| 8. |
- Bengtsson, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Life cycle assessment of marine fuels - A comparative study of four fossil fuels for marine propulsion
- 2011
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Maritime transportation is facing harder requirements on fuel quality and exhaust emissions in the coming decades, especially in the Emission Control Areas (ECAs). To address these requirements the shipping industry will either need to use alternative fuels or implement exhaust abatement techniques. Consequently, the maritime sector within ECAs is on the verge of a fuel and/or technology shift in the near future. At the same time, there is limited information regarding marine fuels’ overall environmental impact during their life cycle.The overall aim of this report is therefore to investigate the environmental performance of maritime fuels from a life cycle perspective. This has been done through a life cycle assessment (LCA) of four possible fossil marine fuels combined with two exhaust gas cleaning techniques. The geographical location is set to the North Sea and the Baltic Sea and the time perspective is 2015 to 2020.The following fuel alternatives are assessed:• Heavy fuel oil with a sulphur content of 1% (base scenario)• Heavy fuel oil with a sulphur content of 1% with a scrubber (fulfils the regulation within the sulphur ECAs 2015)• Marine gas oil with a sulphur content of 0.1% (fulfils the regulation within the sulphur ECAs 2015)• Marine gas oil with a sulphur content of 0.1 % with a selective catalytic reduction unit (fulfils the regulation within the sulphur ECAs 2015 and the Tier III regulation for nitrogen oxide emissions)• Liquefied natural gas (fulfils the regulation within the sulphur ECAs 2015 and the Tier III regulation for nitrogen oxide emissions)• Gas-to-liquid produced by the Fischer-Tropsch process (fulfils the regulation within the sulphur ECAs 2015)• Gas-to-liquid diesel produced by the Fischer-Tropsch process with a selective catalytic reduction unit (fulfils the regulation within the sulphur ECAs 2015 and the Tier III regulation for nitrogen oxide emissions)It is shown that the “use phase”, i.e. the combustion of marine fuels, is the dominant contributor to the overall environmental impact. Two main results are robust during all the modelled scenarios. Firstly, the global warming potential of the compared fuels are of the same order of magnitude. Maritime transportation with LNG as fuel can be attributed to comparable or a somewhat lower global warming potential than the other fuels depending on modelling choices. Secondly, the potential contribution to acidification and eutrophication is significantly lower for fuel alternatives that fulfil the Tier III requirement regarding nitrogen oxide emissions, i.e. the LNG fuel alternatives and the fuel alternatives with selective catalytic reduction units.A problematic issue related to LCA is how to allocate the impact from crude oil refining into marine fuels. This is problematic since there is a wide diversity of refineries and since the choice of allocation method could change the result. The problem is specific for marine fuels since they only contribute to a small part of a refinery’s overall impact. It is therefore suggested to perform a separate study with focus on how future changes in refinery production and different allocation methods will change the environmental impact of crude oil based fuels. It is also recommended that a study with a longer time perspective is carried out, in order to evaluate what fuels that are desirable in the future and what fuel properties that are important.
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| 9. |
- Brynolf, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Compliance possibilities for the future ECA regulations through the use of abatement technologies or change of fuels
- 2014
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. - : Elsevier BV. - 1361-9209. ; 28, s. 6-18
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The upcoming stricter emission control area (ECA) regulations on sulphur and nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions from shipping can be handled by different strategies. In this study, three alternatives complying with the ECA regulations for sulphur as well as Tier III for NOX are presented and compared using life cycle assessment. None of the three alternatives will significantly reduce the life cycle impact on climate change compared to heavy fuel oil (HFO). However, all alternatives will reduce the impact on particulate matter, photochemical ozone formation, acidification and terrestrial eutrophication potential. The assessment also highlighted two important regulatory aspects. Firstly, the need to regulate the ammonia slip from use of selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and secondly the need to regulate the methane slip from LNG engines. In addition, an analysis of the use of SCR in Swedish waters is presented showing that SCRs have been used on a number of ships already giving significantly reduced NOX emissions.
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| 10. |
- Brynolf, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental assessment of marine fuels: liquefied natural gas, liquefied biogas, methanol and bio-methanol
- 2014
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Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-6526. ; 74, s. 86-95
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The combined effort of reducing the emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and greenhouse gases to comply with future regulations and reduce impact on climate change will require a significant change in ship propulsion. One alternative is to change fuels. In this study we compare the life cycle environmental performance of liquefied natural gas (LNG), liquefied biogas (LBG), methanol and bio-methanol. We also highlight a number of important aspects to consider when selecting marine fuels. A transition to use of LNG or methanol produced from natural gas would significantly improve the overall environmental performance. However, the impact on climate change is of the same order of magnitude as with use of heavy fuel oil. It is only the use of LBG and bio-methanol that has the potential to reduce the climate impact. The analysis did not show any significant differences in environmental performance between methane and methanol when produced from the same raw materials, but the performance of the methanol engines are yet to be validated.
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